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Introduction
Pyramids (Egypt), large structures with four triangular sides that meet in a point at the top, directly over the center of the pyramid’s square base. Ancient peoples in several parts of the world built pyramids, but the Egyptians constructed the biggest and most famous pyramids, with which this article deals. For information on the pyramids of Mesopotamia.
The ancient Egyptians built more than 90 royal pyramids, from about 2630 bc until about 1530 bc. During that time, the pyramid form evolved from a series of stepped terraces that resembled the layers of a wedding cake to the better-known, sloped pyramidal shape. The first pyramid, the Step Pyramid at Şaqqārah, was constructed during the reign of King Djoser (2630 bc-2611 bc). The largest pyramid is the one built for King Khufu, at the site of modern Giza. Khufu’s pyramid, known as the Great Pyramid, is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the World that still survives.
What Is a Pyramid?
Egyptian pyramids served as tombs for kings and queens, but they were also places of ongoing religious activity. After a ruler died, his or her body was carefully treated and wrapped to preserve it as a mummy. According to ancient Egyptian belief, the pyramid, where the mummy was placed, provided a place for the monarch to pass into the afterlife. In temples nearby, priests performed rituals to nourish the dead monarch’s spirit, which was believed to stay with the body after death. In the Old Kingdom (a period of Egyptian history from about 2575 bc to about 2134 bc), Egyptian artists carved hieroglyphs on the walls of the burial chamber, designed to safeguard the dead monarch’s passage into the afterlife. These hieroglyphic writings, which include hymns, magical spells, instructions on how to act in front of the gods, and other pieces of useful knowledge, are known as the Pyramid Texts.
During the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians built their largest and most ambitious pyramids, typically of large stone blocks. Over time, the size and quality of the pyramids decreased, probably because they were extremely costly. In the Middle Kingdom (2040 bc-1640 bc), the Egyptians built pyramids mostly of mud brick. All pyramids were aligned to the cardinal directions, meaning that their sides ran almost exactly due north-south and east-west. Most pyramids rose from desert plateaus on the west bank of the Nile River, behind which the sun set. The Egyptians believed that a dead monarch’s spirit left the body and traveled through the sky with the sun each day. When the sun set in the west, the royal spirits settled into their pyramid tombs to renew themselves.
The internal layout of pyramids changed over time, but the entrance was typically in the center of the north face. From here a passage ran downward, sometimes leveling out, to the king’s burial chamber, which ideally was located directly underneath the pyramid’s center point. Sometimes, in addition to the burial chamber, there were storage chambers within the pyramid. These chambers held objects used in burial rituals as well as items for the deceased to use in the afterlife. Some of these items were valuable, and in later years people robbed many of the pyramids and stole the objects.
A pyramid never stood alone in the desert. Instead, it was the focus of a complex of temples and smaller pyramids. Priests and officials entered a typical pyramid complex through a temple near a harbor connected to the Nile by a system of canals. This so-called valley temple was linked to the pyramid by a long, covered walkway, known as a causeway. The causeway ran up from the valley through the desert to another temple, called a pyramid temple or mortuary temple. This temple was connected to the pyramid at the center of its eastern face.
Most pyramid complexes had satellite pyramids and queens’ pyramids. The satellite pyramids were too small to serve as burial places, and their purpose remains mysterious. They may have contained statues representing the king’s ka, an aspect of his spirit. The queens’ pyramids were simpler, smaller versions of the kings’, sometimes with small temples all their own. They were intended for the burial of a king’s principal wives.
The Great Pyramid
The largest pyramid ever built, King Khufu’s, is often called the Great Pyramid. It lies in the desert west of Giza, accompanied by the pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure (Khufu’s son and grandson). The Great Pyramid was built during Khufu’s reign (2551 bc-2528 bc). Vandals and erosion have stripped away some of the Great Pyramid’s outer material, and some of its uppermost levels have been dismantled, but it still retains its sense of majesty.
A Construction
The base of the Great Pyramid forms a nearly perfect square, with only a 19-cm (about 7.5-in) difference between its longest and shortest sides, out of a total length of about 230 m (756 ft). This huge square is also almost exactly level. When newly completed, the Great Pyramid rose 146.7 m (481.4 ft)—nearly 50 stories high. The pyramid’s core probably includes a hill of unexcavated rubble, making it impossible to determine its exact number of blocks. Researchers estimate that 2.3 million blocks were used to build the Great Pyramid, with an average weight of about 2.5 metric tons per block. The largest block weighs as much as 15 metric tons.
The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the Great Pyramid was most likely accomplished by two crews of 2,000 workers each. Teams of bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others probably served the pyramid builders, so that a total of about 25,000 men and women may have lived year-round near the construction site. None of the workers were slaves. Most were probably farmers, contracted to work for a limited period. Specialists, who were permanently employed by the king, filled the positions that required the most skill—architects, masons, metal workers, and carpenters.
In building Khufu’s pyramid, the architects used techniques developed by earlier pyramid builders. They selected a site at Giza on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the Great Pyramid in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.
Most of the stone for the interior of the Great Pyramid was quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the Nile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) people took the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.
To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction the outer surface of the stone was left unfinished; excess stone was removed later.
As the Great Pyramid rose, the workers built large ramps to drag their materials up the sides of the structure. The exact form of these ramps is not known, but scholars believe that they were probably built wrapping around the pyramid as they rose. These ramps were probably made of desert clay mixed with water and bonded with limestone debris left over from the construction work.
When the workers had completed the pyramid and installed the pyramidion, or cap stone, ramps still covered the surface of the pyramid. As the workers dismantled the ramps from the top down, they slowly exposed the pyramid’s stone surface, which stonemasons smoothed and polished. When the ramp was gone, the pyramid was displayed in its full majesty.
B Interior
The interior of the Great Pyramid is complex, with a series of passages leading to several rooms. The most important room is the King’s Chamber, the room in which Khufu’s body was placed during his funeral. In this room the priests left items that Khufu, like all Egyptians, would need for the afterlife. Although the builders tried to block passages and doors when they left the pyramid after the king’s funeral, tomb robbers did eventually take everything of value.
The entrance to the Great Pyramid was set 17 m (55 ft) above ground level. It was intended to be used only once, during Khufu’s funeral, when special scaffolding was erected. Once the scaffolding was dismantled, the entrance’s height served as a security measure against tomb robbers. The entrance leads to the Descending Passage, which runs down through the pyramid into bedrock beneath the pyramid and levels out until it reaches the Subterranean Chamber. About 18 m (60 ft) from the pyramid entrance, before entering the bedrock, the Descending Passage intersects another corridor, called the Ascending Passage, now sealed with three large granite blocks.
The Ascending Passage runs upward for about 39 m (129 ft), until it levels out and enters the so-called Queen’s Chamber. Early Arab explorers of the Great Pyramid gave it this name in the mistaken belief that the queen was buried here. Instead, it most probably held a statue of the king that represented his ka, a form of his spirit. The walls of the unfinished Queen’s Chamber grow closer as they rise and meet at a single point at the ceiling. This form results from each level of stones in the walls projecting slightly outward from the level beneath it, an arrangement called corbeling.
Where the Ascending Passage levels off horizontally and runs toward the Queen’s Chamber, it also intersects with one end of the Grand Gallery, a large, corbeled passageway 47 m (153 ft) long and 8.5 m (28 ft) high. The Grand Gallery most probably held some of the large stones that were used to plug passages after the king’s funeral. In the western wall at the point where the Ascending Passage and the Grand Gallery meet, there is an opening to a tunnel that winds its way down through the core of the pyramid and the bedrock to meet the Descending Passage near the Subterranean Chamber. It probably provided air to the workers carving out the Subterranean Chamber.
At the upper end of the Grand Gallery, another level corridor runs south into the King’s Chamber, a simple, rectangular room faced entirely with red granite. All that remains in the room now is a granite sarcophagus in which King Khufu was buried, near the western wall. About 1 m (3 ft) above the floor, near the center of the northern and southern walls of the King’s Chamber, are openings to shafts that run upward through the pyramid to the exterior of the pyramid. The exact purpose of these shafts is not known. Similar shafts lead out from the Queen’s Chamber but are blocked after 65 m (213 ft) and never reach the exterior of the pyramid.
How the Pyramid Form Developed
The Egyptian pyramids developed from royal tombs of the earliest periods of Egyptian history. In the 1st and 2nd dynasties (2920 bc-2770 bc and 2770 bc-2649 bc), kings were buried at the city of Abydos in graves topped with a pile of clean sand inside low-lying brick walls. By the 3rd Dynasty (2649 bc-2575 bc), kings were being buried underneath large mud brick rectangles called mastabas, from the Arabic word meaning “bench.”
King Djoser, who reigned from 2630 bc to 2611 bc, built a more elaborate royal tomb known as the Step Pyramid at Şaqqārah. This tomb started out as a mastaba, but its architect, Imhotep, first expanded the mastaba then topped it with successively smaller mastabas. In the end, Djoser’s tomb looked like a rectangular wedding cake with six layers.
The Step Pyramid and later pyramids of the 3rd Dynasty were constructed of small, almost brick-sized stones that were laid in vertical courses and inward-leaning to create the sloped sides.
King Sneferu, the father of Khufu, built the initial true pyramids, developing the new technique during construction. The earliest true pyramid, at the town of Maydūm, began as a step pyramid with inward-leaning walls and eight levels. After working on the structure for 14 years, Sneferu moved his burial ground north to Dashur for unknown reasons, and construction began on another pyramid. This one, too, was made of stone blocks that leaned inward. The architects had designed it with an angle of 60 degrees (to the ground), but as the pyramid rose, it started to sink because of the weight and angle of the stones. To solve this problem, the builders put up an outer supporting wall, giving the half-finished pyramid a shallower angle of 55 degrees. After this, the architects finished the upper portion of the pyramid off with a slope of only 43 degrees. This shift in angle from 55 to 43 degrees gives this pyramid its name—the Bent Pyramid.
During construction of the Bent Pyramid, the architects made a discovery: On the upper portion, instead of leaning the stones inward, they laid down horizontal layers of larger stone blocks. With the new technique, the pyramid shape resulted because each level was slightly smaller than the one it lay upon. The new technique was then used to construct another giant pyramid for Sneferu, now called the North Pyramid, located about 1.6 km (1 mi) north of the Bent Pyramid. It proved so successful that Sneferu returned to Maydūm, while construction was still in progress on the two Dashur pyramids, and refined the Maydūm pyramid by adding an outer level constructed with the new approach.
All the pyramid builders of the 4th Dynasty (2575 bc-2467 bc), including the builders of the Great Pyramid at Giza, used Sneferu’s new technique. Over the course of the 5th Dynasty (2465 bc-2323 bc), however, the quality of the royal pyramids declined. The cores were made of smaller blocks of stone, laid more irregularly. By the end of the Old Kingdom around 2134 bc, the pyramids had a core of shoddy masonry and debris covered with a veneer of fine limestone.
After a chaotic period in Egyptian history called the First Intermediate Period (2134 bc-2040 bc), Egyptian kings chose to be buried in pyramids at their new capital city near modern Lisht. These pyramids of the Middle Kingdom resemble those of the late Old Kingdom, being loosely constructed of rough stones, debris, and mud-brick, and coated with fine limestone. However, the associated temples were much larger than those of the Old Kingdom.
The pyramids built early on in the Middle Kingdom were entered through an opening cut into the center of the north face, from which a simple passage descended. By the reign of Senwosret II (1897 bc-1878 bc), builders altered this simple and predictable arrangement. At his pyramid at Illahun the entrance led to a system of shafts on the south side of the pyramid and a passageway that circled the burial chamber before opening into it. During the rest of the Middle Kingdom, royal pyramids became increasingly complicated in plan, presumably to foil the intentions of tomb robbers.
In the New Kingdom (1550 bc-1070 bc), kings were no longer buried in pyramids. The site of royal tombs had shifted to the Valley of the Kings near modern Luxor. But private citizens used small pyramids for tombs that were barely higher and wider than the entrances to them.
Studying the Pyramids
The pyramids of Egypt have long captivated people’s imaginations. The Greek historian Herodotus described his visit to Egypt and its pyramids in the middle of the 5th century bc, and later Greek and Roman travelers admired and climbed the Great Pyramid. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder, who lived in the 1st century ad, told of local Egyptians who would help tourists in their ascents. But European descriptions of the pyramids largely ceased for more than 1,000 years after the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the 300s and 400s ad. Over time, the sands of the desert swept over many of the pyramids, burying them.
John Greaves, a professor from Britain’s Oxford University, undertook the first organized scientific expedition to Egypt in 1638. Greaves set out to describe the Great Pyramid, and his measurements proved to be highly accurate. Throughout the rest of the 17th and 18th centuries the efforts of European diplomats and travelers, such as Benoît de Maillet of France, Richard Pococke of Britain, and Frederik Norden of Denmark, helped stimulate European interest in the monuments of ancient Egypt.
In 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte of France invaded Egypt. A large team of scholars accompanied his army, with the intention of documenting not only every ancient monument but the plants, animals, geography, and culture of the modern inhabitants. The results of this effort, which ended in 1801 with the French retreat from Egypt, were published in a monumental series of books entitled Description de l’Égypte (1809-1828).
Giovanni Battista Caviglia of Italy carried out the first excavations at Giza from 1816 to 1819. Another Italian, Giovanni Battista Belzoni, joined him and discovered the upper entrance into the pyramid of Khufu’s son, Khafre, only to find that tomb robbers had long since pillaged it. The next major work at Giza was undertaken by Englishmen Richard William Howard Vyse and John Shae Perring, starting in 1837. Working with dynamite and gunpowder, Vyse and Perring forced their way to the cores of several monuments, including the burial chamber of the third pyramid at Giza, belonging to King Menkaure.
In 1842 King Frederick William IV of Prussia sent an expedition to Egypt led by the scholar Karl Richard Lepsius. The results of this exhaustive survey of the Egyptian monuments were published in painstaking detail in a 12-volume work entitled Denkmäler aus Ägyten und Äthiopien (Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia, 1849-1859). Lepsius also carried out limited excavations at the Step Pyramid of Djoser and at the mortuary temple of Amenemhet III at Hawara.
Between 1853 and 1858, French scholar Auguste Mariette cleared rubble and debris that filled the best-preserved valley temple in ancient Egypt: the valley temple of Khafre's pyramid at Giza. In the final years before his death in 1881, Mariette opened the pyramid of Pepi I at Şaqqārah and discovered inside a set of Pyramid Texts carved on the walls of the tomb.
In 1881 British scholar Sir Flinders Petrie, called the “Father of Egyptian Archaeology,” undertook the most accurate survey up to that time of the Great Pyramid and other monuments on the Giza Plateau. Over the course of his career, Petrie excavated at the pyramid of Amenemhet III at Hawara, the pyramid of Senwosret II at Illahun, and Sneferu’s pyramid and temple at Maydūm.
In 1901 and 1902, the Egyptian Antiquities Service divided the entire site of Giza into different areas of excavation. The Service gave George Reisner of the Harvard-Boston Expedition the northernmost area, which included the region east of the Great Pyramid. He later also received the southernmost area, containing the entire pyramid complex of King Menkaure. Reisner’s excavations on the valley and mortuary temples of Menkaure laid bare the original layout of an entire pyramid complex. The central area at Giza was excavated by archaeologists of the German Institute, principally by Uvo Hölscher. He re-excavated the valley temple of Khafre and the associated pyramid complex in 1909.
After this age of large-scale expeditions, the excavations in Egypt tended to be smaller and more focused. World War II (1939-1945) interrupted the work of scholars such as Walter Emery of Britain and Jean-Philippe Lauer of France, but they returned after the war to continue their studies. From 1963 through 1975, Italians Vito Maragioglio and Celeste Rinaldi carried out an architectural survey of all the Old and Middle Kingdom pyramids and produced a rigorously detailed eight-volume reference work entitled L’architettura delle Pirimidi Menfite (The Architecture of the Memphite Pyramids).
Explorations continued in the 1980s and 1990s, characterized by the use of robots and computers to map and analyze the structure of the pyramids. Many aspects of the Egyptian pyramids remain a mystery, but scholars continue to excavate them, explore them, and learn more about them.
Introduction
Pyramids (Egypt), large structures with four triangular sides that meet in a point at the top, directly over the center of the pyramid’s square base. Ancient peoples in several parts of the world built pyramids, but the Egyptians constructed the biggest and most famous pyramids, with which this article deals. For information on the pyramids of Mesopotamia.
The ancient Egyptians built more than 90 royal pyramids, from about 2630 bc until about 1530 bc. During that time, the pyramid form evolved from a series of stepped terraces that resembled the layers of a wedding cake to the better-known, sloped pyramidal shape. The first pyramid, the Step Pyramid at Şaqqārah, was constructed during the reign of King Djoser (2630 bc-2611 bc). The largest pyramid is the one built for King Khufu, at the site of modern Giza. Khufu’s pyramid, known as the Great Pyramid, is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the World that still survives.
What Is a Pyramid?
Egyptian pyramids served as tombs for kings and queens, but they were also places of ongoing religious activity. After a ruler died, his or her body was carefully treated and wrapped to preserve it as a mummy. According to ancient Egyptian belief, the pyramid, where the mummy was placed, provided a place for the monarch to pass into the afterlife. In temples nearby, priests performed rituals to nourish the dead monarch’s spirit, which was believed to stay with the body after death. In the Old Kingdom (a period of Egyptian history from about 2575 bc to about 2134 bc), Egyptian artists carved hieroglyphs on the walls of the burial chamber, designed to safeguard the dead monarch’s passage into the afterlife. These hieroglyphic writings, which include hymns, magical spells, instructions on how to act in front of the gods, and other pieces of useful knowledge, are known as the Pyramid Texts.
During the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians built their largest and most ambitious pyramids, typically of large stone blocks. Over time, the size and quality of the pyramids decreased, probably because they were extremely costly. In the Middle Kingdom (2040 bc-1640 bc), the Egyptians built pyramids mostly of mud brick. All pyramids were aligned to the cardinal directions, meaning that their sides ran almost exactly due north-south and east-west. Most pyramids rose from desert plateaus on the west bank of the Nile River, behind which the sun set. The Egyptians believed that a dead monarch’s spirit left the body and traveled through the sky with the sun each day. When the sun set in the west, the royal spirits settled into their pyramid tombs to renew themselves.
The internal layout of pyramids changed over time, but the entrance was typically in the center of the north face. From here a passage ran downward, sometimes leveling out, to the king’s burial chamber, which ideally was located directly underneath the pyramid’s center point. Sometimes, in addition to the burial chamber, there were storage chambers within the pyramid. These chambers held objects used in burial rituals as well as items for the deceased to use in the afterlife. Some of these items were valuable, and in later years people robbed many of the pyramids and stole the objects.
A pyramid never stood alone in the desert. Instead, it was the focus of a complex of temples and smaller pyramids. Priests and officials entered a typical pyramid complex through a temple near a harbor connected to the Nile by a system of canals. This so-called valley temple was linked to the pyramid by a long, covered walkway, known as a causeway. The causeway ran up from the valley through the desert to another temple, called a pyramid temple or mortuary temple. This temple was connected to the pyramid at the center of its eastern face.
Most pyramid complexes had satellite pyramids and queens’ pyramids. The satellite pyramids were too small to serve as burial places, and their purpose remains mysterious. They may have contained statues representing the king’s ka, an aspect of his spirit. The queens’ pyramids were simpler, smaller versions of the kings’, sometimes with small temples all their own. They were intended for the burial of a king’s principal wives.
The Great Pyramid
The largest pyramid ever built, King Khufu’s, is often called the Great Pyramid. It lies in the desert west of Giza, accompanied by the pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure (Khufu’s son and grandson). The Great Pyramid was built during Khufu’s reign (2551 bc-2528 bc). Vandals and erosion have stripped away some of the Great Pyramid’s outer material, and some of its uppermost levels have been dismantled, but it still retains its sense of majesty.
A Construction
The base of the Great Pyramid forms a nearly perfect square, with only a 19-cm (about 7.5-in) difference between its longest and shortest sides, out of a total length of about 230 m (756 ft). This huge square is also almost exactly level. When newly completed, the Great Pyramid rose 146.7 m (481.4 ft)—nearly 50 stories high. The pyramid’s core probably includes a hill of unexcavated rubble, making it impossible to determine its exact number of blocks. Researchers estimate that 2.3 million blocks were used to build the Great Pyramid, with an average weight of about 2.5 metric tons per block. The largest block weighs as much as 15 metric tons.
The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the Great Pyramid was most likely accomplished by two crews of 2,000 workers each. Teams of bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others probably served the pyramid builders, so that a total of about 25,000 men and women may have lived year-round near the construction site. None of the workers were slaves. Most were probably farmers, contracted to work for a limited period. Specialists, who were permanently employed by the king, filled the positions that required the most skill—architects, masons, metal workers, and carpenters.
In building Khufu’s pyramid, the architects used techniques developed by earlier pyramid builders. They selected a site at Giza on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the Great Pyramid in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.
Most of the stone for the interior of the Great Pyramid was quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the Nile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) people took the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.
To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction the outer surface of the stone was left unfinished; excess stone was removed later.
As the Great Pyramid rose, the workers built large ramps to drag their materials up the sides of the structure. The exact form of these ramps is not known, but scholars believe that they were probably built wrapping around the pyramid as they rose. These ramps were probably made of desert clay mixed with water and bonded with limestone debris left over from the construction work.
When the workers had completed the pyramid and installed the pyramidion, or cap stone, ramps still covered the surface of the pyramid. As the workers dismantled the ramps from the top down, they slowly exposed the pyramid’s stone surface, which stonemasons smoothed and polished. When the ramp was gone, the pyramid was displayed in its full majesty.
B Interior
The interior of the Great Pyramid is complex, with a series of passages leading to several rooms. The most important room is the King’s Chamber, the room in which Khufu’s body was placed during his funeral. In this room the priests left items that Khufu, like all Egyptians, would need for the afterlife. Although the builders tried to block passages and doors when they left the pyramid after the king’s funeral, tomb robbers did eventually take everything of value.
The entrance to the Great Pyramid was set 17 m (55 ft) above ground level. It was intended to be used only once, during Khufu’s funeral, when special scaffolding was erected. Once the scaffolding was dismantled, the entrance’s height served as a security measure against tomb robbers. The entrance leads to the Descending Passage, which runs down through the pyramid into bedrock beneath the pyramid and levels out until it reaches the Subterranean Chamber. About 18 m (60 ft) from the pyramid entrance, before entering the bedrock, the Descending Passage intersects another corridor, called the Ascending Passage, now sealed with three large granite blocks.
The Ascending Passage runs upward for about 39 m (129 ft), until it levels out and enters the so-called Queen’s Chamber. Early Arab explorers of the Great Pyramid gave it this name in the mistaken belief that the queen was buried here. Instead, it most probably held a statue of the king that represented his ka, a form of his spirit. The walls of the unfinished Queen’s Chamber grow closer as they rise and meet at a single point at the ceiling. This form results from each level of stones in the walls projecting slightly outward from the level beneath it, an arrangement called corbeling.
Where the Ascending Passage levels off horizontally and runs toward the Queen’s Chamber, it also intersects with one end of the Grand Gallery, a large, corbeled passageway 47 m (153 ft) long and 8.5 m (28 ft) high. The Grand Gallery most probably held some of the large stones that were used to plug passages after the king’s funeral. In the western wall at the point where the Ascending Passage and the Grand Gallery meet, there is an opening to a tunnel that winds its way down through the core of the pyramid and the bedrock to meet the Descending Passage near the Subterranean Chamber. It probably provided air to the workers carving out the Subterranean Chamber.
At the upper end of the Grand Gallery, another level corridor runs south into the King’s Chamber, a simple, rectangular room faced entirely with red granite. All that remains in the room now is a granite sarcophagus in which King Khufu was buried, near the western wall. About 1 m (3 ft) above the floor, near the center of the northern and southern walls of the King’s Chamber, are openings to shafts that run upward through the pyramid to the exterior of the pyramid. The exact purpose of these shafts is not known. Similar shafts lead out from the Queen’s Chamber but are blocked after 65 m (213 ft) and never reach the exterior of the pyramid.
How the Pyramid Form Developed
The Egyptian pyramids developed from royal tombs of the earliest periods of Egyptian history. In the 1st and 2nd dynasties (2920 bc-2770 bc and 2770 bc-2649 bc), kings were buried at the city of Abydos in graves topped with a pile of clean sand inside low-lying brick walls. By the 3rd Dynasty (2649 bc-2575 bc), kings were being buried underneath large mud brick rectangles called mastabas, from the Arabic word meaning “bench.”
King Djoser, who reigned from 2630 bc to 2611 bc, built a more elaborate royal tomb known as the Step Pyramid at Şaqqārah. This tomb started out as a mastaba, but its architect, Imhotep, first expanded the mastaba then topped it with successively smaller mastabas. In the end, Djoser’s tomb looked like a rectangular wedding cake with six layers.
The Step Pyramid and later pyramids of the 3rd Dynasty were constructed of small, almost brick-sized stones that were laid in vertical courses and inward-leaning to create the sloped sides.
King Sneferu, the father of Khufu, built the initial true pyramids, developing the new technique during construction. The earliest true pyramid, at the town of Maydūm, began as a step pyramid with inward-leaning walls and eight levels. After working on the structure for 14 years, Sneferu moved his burial ground north to Dashur for unknown reasons, and construction began on another pyramid. This one, too, was made of stone blocks that leaned inward. The architects had designed it with an angle of 60 degrees (to the ground), but as the pyramid rose, it started to sink because of the weight and angle of the stones. To solve this problem, the builders put up an outer supporting wall, giving the half-finished pyramid a shallower angle of 55 degrees. After this, the architects finished the upper portion of the pyramid off with a slope of only 43 degrees. This shift in angle from 55 to 43 degrees gives this pyramid its name—the Bent Pyramid.
During construction of the Bent Pyramid, the architects made a discovery: On the upper portion, instead of leaning the stones inward, they laid down horizontal layers of larger stone blocks. With the new technique, the pyramid shape resulted because each level was slightly smaller than the one it lay upon. The new technique was then used to construct another giant pyramid for Sneferu, now called the North Pyramid, located about 1.6 km (1 mi) north of the Bent Pyramid. It proved so successful that Sneferu returned to Maydūm, while construction was still in progress on the two Dashur pyramids, and refined the Maydūm pyramid by adding an outer level constructed with the new approach.
All the pyramid builders of the 4th Dynasty (2575 bc-2467 bc), including the builders of the Great Pyramid at Giza, used Sneferu’s new technique. Over the course of the 5th Dynasty (2465 bc-2323 bc), however, the quality of the royal pyramids declined. The cores were made of smaller blocks of stone, laid more irregularly. By the end of the Old Kingdom around 2134 bc, the pyramids had a core of shoddy masonry and debris covered with a veneer of fine limestone.
After a chaotic period in Egyptian history called the First Intermediate Period (2134 bc-2040 bc), Egyptian kings chose to be buried in pyramids at their new capital city near modern Lisht. These pyramids of the Middle Kingdom resemble those of the late Old Kingdom, being loosely constructed of rough stones, debris, and mud-brick, and coated with fine limestone. However, the associated temples were much larger than those of the Old Kingdom.
The pyramids built early on in the Middle Kingdom were entered through an opening cut into the center of the north face, from which a simple passage descended. By the reign of Senwosret II (1897 bc-1878 bc), builders altered this simple and predictable arrangement. At his pyramid at Illahun the entrance led to a system of shafts on the south side of the pyramid and a passageway that circled the burial chamber before opening into it. During the rest of the Middle Kingdom, royal pyramids became increasingly complicated in plan, presumably to foil the intentions of tomb robbers.
In the New Kingdom (1550 bc-1070 bc), kings were no longer buried in pyramids. The site of royal tombs had shifted to the Valley of the Kings near modern Luxor. But private citizens used small pyramids for tombs that were barely higher and wider than the entrances to them.
Studying the Pyramids
The pyramids of Egypt have long captivated people’s imaginations. The Greek historian Herodotus described his visit to Egypt and its pyramids in the middle of the 5th century bc, and later Greek and Roman travelers admired and climbed the Great Pyramid. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder, who lived in the 1st century ad, told of local Egyptians who would help tourists in their ascents. But European descriptions of the pyramids largely ceased for more than 1,000 years after the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the 300s and 400s ad. Over time, the sands of the desert swept over many of the pyramids, burying them.
John Greaves, a professor from Britain’s Oxford University, undertook the first organized scientific expedition to Egypt in 1638. Greaves set out to describe the Great Pyramid, and his measurements proved to be highly accurate. Throughout the rest of the 17th and 18th centuries the efforts of European diplomats and travelers, such as Benoît de Maillet of France, Richard Pococke of Britain, and Frederik Norden of Denmark, helped stimulate European interest in the monuments of ancient Egypt.
In 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte of France invaded Egypt. A large team of scholars accompanied his army, with the intention of documenting not only every ancient monument but the plants, animals, geography, and culture of the modern inhabitants. The results of this effort, which ended in 1801 with the French retreat from Egypt, were published in a monumental series of books entitled Description de l’Égypte (1809-1828).
Giovanni Battista Caviglia of Italy carried out the first excavations at Giza from 1816 to 1819. Another Italian, Giovanni Battista Belzoni, joined him and discovered the upper entrance into the pyramid of Khufu’s son, Khafre, only to find that tomb robbers had long since pillaged it. The next major work at Giza was undertaken by Englishmen Richard William Howard Vyse and John Shae Perring, starting in 1837. Working with dynamite and gunpowder, Vyse and Perring forced their way to the cores of several monuments, including the burial chamber of the third pyramid at Giza, belonging to King Menkaure.
In 1842 King Frederick William IV of Prussia sent an expedition to Egypt led by the scholar Karl Richard Lepsius. The results of this exhaustive survey of the Egyptian monuments were published in painstaking detail in a 12-volume work entitled Denkmäler aus Ägyten und Äthiopien (Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia, 1849-1859). Lepsius also carried out limited excavations at the Step Pyramid of Djoser and at the mortuary temple of Amenemhet III at Hawara.
Between 1853 and 1858, French scholar Auguste Mariette cleared rubble and debris that filled the best-preserved valley temple in ancient Egypt: the valley temple of Khafre's pyramid at Giza. In the final years before his death in 1881, Mariette opened the pyramid of Pepi I at Şaqqārah and discovered inside a set of Pyramid Texts carved on the walls of the tomb.
In 1881 British scholar Sir Flinders Petrie, called the “Father of Egyptian Archaeology,” undertook the most accurate survey up to that time of the Great Pyramid and other monuments on the Giza Plateau. Over the course of his career, Petrie excavated at the pyramid of Amenemhet III at Hawara, the pyramid of Senwosret II at Illahun, and Sneferu’s pyramid and temple at Maydūm.
In 1901 and 1902, the Egyptian Antiquities Service divided the entire site of Giza into different areas of excavation. The Service gave George Reisner of the Harvard-Boston Expedition the northernmost area, which included the region east of the Great Pyramid. He later also received the southernmost area, containing the entire pyramid complex of King Menkaure. Reisner’s excavations on the valley and mortuary temples of Menkaure laid bare the original layout of an entire pyramid complex. The central area at Giza was excavated by archaeologists of the German Institute, principally by Uvo Hölscher. He re-excavated the valley temple of Khafre and the associated pyramid complex in 1909.
After this age of large-scale expeditions, the excavations in Egypt tended to be smaller and more focused. World War II (1939-1945) interrupted the work of scholars such as Walter Emery of Britain and Jean-Philippe Lauer of France, but they returned after the war to continue their studies. From 1963 through 1975, Italians Vito Maragioglio and Celeste Rinaldi carried out an architectural survey of all the Old and Middle Kingdom pyramids and produced a rigorously detailed eight-volume reference work entitled L’architettura delle Pirimidi Menfite (The Architecture of the Memphite Pyramids).
Explorations continued in the 1980s and 1990s, characterized by the use of robots and computers to map and analyze the structure of the pyramids. Many aspects of the Egyptian pyramids remain a mystery, but scholars continue to excavate them, explore them, and learn more about them.
Bahrain National Museum
Situated at the junction of Al-Fatih Highway and Shaikh Hamad Bridge leading to Muharraq, the Museum was officially opened in December 1988 to become one of the latest and largest museums in the Middle East, The Museum consists of several exhibition halls covering the history of Bahrain from the stone age, through ancient civilisations and up to the pre-oil period.
The Hall of Graves focuses on Bahrain's famous burial mounds while the Hall of Dilmun has displays focusing on Dilmun period seals, business activities, jewellery and pottery. Other exhibition areas include the Hall of Customs and Traditions, the Hall of Trades & Crafts, the Hall of Tylos & Islam, the Hall of Natural History, and the Art Gallery. A Heritage Village has been developed outside the Museum and is used for annual national festivals.
The Bahrain National Museum offers a lot for history and heritage scholars.
Oil Museum
Located a few meters from the first oil well discovered in 1932 near Jebel Dukhan, or 'Mountain of Smoke', at Sakhir, the Oil Museum was officially inaugurated in 1992.
It houses old drilling equipment, samples of rocks found underground, topographical maps and some information about the companies that had participated in the exploration for oil.
Bahrain was the first country to discover oil in the Arabian Gulf region.
Currency Museum
This specialised Museum is located in the premises of the Bahrain Monetary Agency (BMA) in the Diplomatic Area. Displayed in the Museum are ancient Arab, Islamic and Byzantine coins minted of gold and silver. The Museum houses one of the nine rarest Islamic currency coins in the world.
All currencies circulated in Bahrain since the early Islamic dynasties are on display with full historical details. The Museum is of great benefit to currency collectors and to Islamic currency research scholars. (Open during the BMA's normal working hours).
Museum of Pearl & Diving
Located on Government Avenue, a few meters from Bab Al-Bahrain gateway, the Museum was converted into a Heritage Centre in 1984. Previously, the building was used as the Bahrain Law Courts, constructed in 1937.
The Museum consists of several exhibition halls displaying various aspects of Bahrain's daily life in the pre-oil period. Such aspects include pearl diving, national costumes, local musical instruments, a typical wedding chamber, domestic games, archive photographs, local herbal medicinal practices and High Court Chamber which has been maintained intact since 1937.
The Heritage Centre is the second best Museum worth visiting.
Bait Al-Qur'an
Located in the city of Manama, Bait Al-Qur'an, or 'House of Qur'an', was inaugurated in March 1990. It is a typical specialised Museum consisting of several floors and characterised by a most distinctive Islamic design. The Bait Al-Qur'an houses ancient manuscripts of the Holy Qur'an that have been collected from the Islamic World in general and from North Africa, Iran, India and China in particular. It also displays rare great Islamic artifacts, jewellery and gold-ornamented glass utensils, indicating the great islamic heritage arts that have had an influence throughout the world.
The building also includes a lecture hall provided with sophisticated equipment, a library of scientific and Islamic reference books, and Arabic calligraphy exhibition and translations of the Qur'an into several languages. It is definitely worth visiting as part of Bahrain's touristic landmarks.
Bait Al-Jasra
Situated at the village of Al-Jasra on the west coast of Bahrain, Bait Al-Jasra or 'Al-Jasra House' was constructed by Shaikh Hamad bin Abdulla Al-Khalifa in 1907 and was later taken as a summer residence by Shaikh Salman bin Hamad Al-Khalifa, Ruler of Bahrain from 1942 to 1961.
The House was designed according to the traditional Bahraini architecture to suit the local environment. The local building materials used include coral, gypsum and palm-tree trunks.
It consists of several rooms used for different purposes such as sitting, living, family, kitchen and date juice extraction. All the rooms are traditionally furnished. A distinctive feature in the courtyard is the Seyam, a moderately elevated palm frond terrace used for night rest.
Shaikh Isa Bin Ali House
Situated in Bahrain's second city, Muharraq, the house was constructed by Shaikh Hassan bin Abdulla bin Ahmed Al-Fatih and was used by Shaikh Isa bin Ali as his residence and centre of Government from 1869-1932.
The house consists of four main sections: the family wing, the Shaikh's wing, the guests's wing and the attendants' wing.
The house is designed in a traditional style where the rooms are directly overlooking an open courtyard, with a windtower, a feature of the traditional architecture in the Arabian Gulf region. The house represents the 19th century construction style in which local building materials were used.
Such materials included coral stones, mortar, and palm-tree tunks, The windows are decorated in ventilated gypsum geometrical designs for which Bahrain was well known.
Siyadi House
Located in the Siyadi District of Muharraq, the house was constructed almost a century ago by the well-known Bahraini pearl merchant, Ahmed bin Jassim Siyadi.
The house stands as a typical residence of Bahraini pearl merchants at the beginning of the last century. It is traditionally decorated with geometric ornaments, gypsum designs and engraved wooden windows with stained glass, all of which was the work of talented Bahraini craftsmen.
The house consists of several floors intended for different purposes. It has been renovated recently and is maintained as a piece of heritage.
Bahrain Fort
The Fort is at a distance of nearly 17 kilometers from the city of Manama and is situated at Karbabad, the village well known for its traditional basketry on the north central coastline. It is also known as Qal'at al Burtughal, or the Portuguese Fort. The Fort is of a great historical importance in the Arabian Gulf region. It is located within a historical site that had become the seat of successive civilisations, the last of which was the Islamic era.
The Fort was built by the Portuguese in 1522 on the ruins of an earlier small fort built by the people of Bahrain. The Portuguese added the high walls, the huge square towers and a surrounding moat which is still visible to visitors. The Bahrain Fort occupies a strategic military position where the navigation movement could be watched. Excavations have revealed ancient soldiers' barracks, horse stables, an ammunition depot, a secret passageway, ceramic utensils and Islamic and Chinese currency coins.
Shaikh Salman bin Ahmed Al-Fatih Fort
Built by Shaikh Salman bin Ahmed Al-Fatih in 1812, the Fort sits on a high vantage point overlooking the surrounding desert. It was used by Shaikh Salman as his seat of government.
The Fort has four towers in the corners, two of them are circular and the other two are square. The towers are connected to each other by an overhead passage and contain residential chambers and associated facilities. It is believed that the Fort was built on the ruins of an earlier 1698 castle.
The Fort was subjected to a meticulous renovation programme and has bee en restored to its original condition.
Today, Qal'at al-Riffa'a, or Riffa'a Fort, is one of Bahrain's prime tourist attractions and is open to visitors.
Arad Fort
Situated on the Island of Muharraq, the Fort was built in the 17th century and was used by the Omanis during their short occupation of Bahrain in 1800. It is a fortification structure overlooking the waterways giving access to Bahrain from this side. The Fort is in a square shape with a circular tower in each corner. It was also surrounded by a small moat that used to be filled with water from wells especially dug for this purpose. The Fort was used during the pre-Portuguese era.
As part of the recent renovation, an information office was established at the entrance of the Fort. A model of the Fort, old Portuguese maps and phases of renovation are displayed in the office. The Fort is to large extent similar to the historical forts found on the coasts of Arabia.
Al-Khamis Mosque
Situated in the Al-Khamis area on Shaikh Salman Avenue, the mosque is one of the oldest Islamic relies in the Arabian Gulf region. It is believed that it was built during the Umayyad Dynasty. However, certain inscriptions indicate a later date. Excavations have revealed that the mosque was existing through different historical periods and that it was renovated circa 1058 AD. In the 12th century, the Ayounite Prince, Abu Sinan, made an extension to the mosque and built a minaret. Later, the second minaret was added.
The mosque resembles the Islamic architecture of the time. Arches and columns are notable for their botanical design and verses from the Holy Qur'an which can still be made out. A separate museum has been established to display the history and the constructional phases of the mosque, as well as the unique designs, inscriptions and gravestones.
This mosque has played a major role in disseminating the doctrines of Islam throughout the Arabian Gulf region.
Ain Umm Al Sejoor
A natural water spring forming part of a Dilmun-age temple discovered at a site to the north of the village of Duraz, along Budaiya Road. The temple was excavated in the early 1950's and the water spring is believed to be one of the richest water wells in Bahrain.
The stone blocks scattered around the well indicated that the large building had existed, with a large are attached to the temple. Excavation has revealed stone stairs leading to the source of the well water.
Two sculpted lambs were also found near the stairs, probably indicating the sacred nature of the water well.
Saar Settlement
This archaeological site is accessible through the main road of Saar where guiding signboards are erected. This is the most recent discovery of the Dilmun era and consists of residential dwellings inhabited by the Dilminite people 4,000 years ago.
The houses are partitioned into living rooms, kitchens and courtyards, with narrow streets leading to the houses. The Saar settlement is the only archaeological site found with burial grounds adjoining residential dwellings. Other discoveries in this site include the Saar Temple and a unique type of tombs labelled 'interconnected tombs' now along the highway leading to King Fahd Causeway.
Ancient Burial Mounds
Notably scattered along large stretches of Shaikh Khalifa Highway, near the Hamad Town roundabout, these archaeological mounds are of great historical importance, going back to the Dilmun civilisation in the third millennium BC. Other archaeological mounds which to back to the Hellenistic period of Alexander the Great (2500 BC) are also found in various areas in Bahrain.
The most imposing mounds are those believed to be the Dilmunite Royal Tombs. These tombs are seen in A'ali close to modern dwellings. Several models of these tombs are displayed at Bahrain National Museum.
Saar Burial Mounds
The Saar interconnected burial mounds comprise nearly 1,500 tombs that have been unearthed, with human remains sitting in a squat position.
These tombs are contemporaneous with other similar graves built
Duraz Temple
A Dilmun-age temple located in the village of Duraz along Budaiya Road. Sufficient information available about this temple because the archeological excavation has discontinued, However, there are remains of cylindrical columns featuring the special design of the temple.
Excavations have unearthed remains of the main altar wall and of a gate leading to an inner room. It is probable that the temple was surrounded with walls having platforms similar to those of the Barbar temple.
Barbar Temple
Excavated in the 1950's by the Danish Archaeology Mission and located in the village of Barbar, the temple consists of three superimposed levels built over several periods of time. It is believed that the first level was constructed circa 2800 BC and that a larger, wider and higher temple was built on the remains of the earlier one.
The temple comprises a sacred throne, a libation stone and a worship court. To the western side, three exists a water well and the main courtyard is still visible to the visitor. The temple resembles very closely the temples found in the Mesopotamian civilisation.
Basket Weaving
This handicraft activity is found at several locations in the village of Karbabad, a few meters from the ancient site of Bahrain Fort.
It is one of the ancient traditional crafts which is still being practiced. A pitch-coated collection of baskets was discovered in 4,000-year old mounds.
The palm-tree has played a considerable role in the daily life of people who have benefited from the palm-tree products such as the dates, fronds, trunks, etc.
The skilled craftsmen who have inherited this industry from their forefathers produce various household items such as baskets, frails, fishing cages, mats and Basties (palm frond woven houses). Natural dyes are used to make the products more attractive.
Visitors can watch the weavers at work and can obtain some items for daily use or for souvenirs from the one-million-date-palm-tree Island.
Pottery Making
The craft of pottery is found in the village of A'ali, one of the oldest villages that houses 4,000-year old archaeological mounds.
The craft is an ancient one as some artifacts found in the mounds go back to the Dilmun age.
Clay is the principal material in this handicraft and is brought from certain local sites. The clay is then beaten and mixed with water until it is ready for throwing. The clay dough is then placed on a foot-operated rotating wheel and shaped as required. The products are kept in the sun to dry and then carefully placed in ancient, purpose-designed kilns, before they are displayed and offered for sale.
The pottery products include beautiful jars, bowls, incense burners, planting containers, money boxes, vases, etc.
Textile Weaving
Textile weaving is principally associated with the village of Bani-Jamrah, a few meters off Budaiya Avenue. It would appear that the traditionally installed wooden loom is quite simple. However, it is very complicated with nearly 2,600 threads extended for about 30 meters.
A weaver would sit with his legs inside a pit in the ground and would use his hands and feet while interweaving threads crosswise in a co-ordinated movement, using a small shuttle.
This shuttle is used for decorating with gold threads. In the old days some of the best sails were made in such workshops and textile woven for men's Izaar and women's Rida'a which used to be exported to the neighbouring countries.
A visitor can have access to this industry either in the village or in the Al-Jasra Handicraft Centre where products, combining ancient, inherited know-how and reasonable prices, are offered for sale.
Dhow Building
The dhow building craft can be seen in the city of Muharraq, near the old seaport.
It is one of the ancient traditional crafts on the island, embodying the significance of the sea in the life of the people of Bahrain and of the other inhabitants of the Arabian Gulf region. The first reference to this industry was found on Dilmun-age seals with various types of boats and vessels.
The skilled Bahraini shipbuilders have to form the shapes of the dhows from the traditional techniques that they have inherited from their forefathers, i.e. without any drawing or plans. The timber used to this industry is imported from India and Indonesia.
Several types of crafts are made for fishing and pearling, as well as for passenger and cargo transport. The different types of dhows manufactured in Bahrain include the Banoosh, Jalboot, Bitteel, and the Boom. Many of these dhows regularly ply the Gulf and the Arabian Sea between Bahrain, Iran and India, and have reached as far as Zanzibar on the east coast of Africa.
Al-Jasra Handicraft Centre
Situated in the village of Al-Jasra, the Centre is a significant tourist place of interest, in recognition of the fact that the ladies of this village are well-known for their skill in palm weaving.
The Centre consists of a number of rooms displaying different traditional handicrafts such as cloth weaving, pottery, Sadow (bedouin weaving), Kuwaiti chests and traditional dhow models. The upper floor exhibition stalls display models of traditional living rooms and kitchens with their attractive traditional furniture. There is also a gift shop selling local handicrafts and souvenirs produced by people who have attended special training courses designed to preserve such handicrafts.
The Al-Jasra Handicraft Centre regularly organises heritage festivals to display the traditional lifestyle of Bahrain's old towns and villages.
King Fahad Causeway
A much more modern tourist attraction, the 25-km long bridge linking Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, the King Fahad Causeway, was opened in 1986. Two artificial Islands were constructed to accommodate such services as customs, immigration, health, the Coastguard and mosques. Tower-shaped restaurants and designed so that patrons can enjoy the beautiful view of the sea separating the two countries.
Al-Areen Wildlife Park
Situated in the village of Zallaq, the sanctuary was inaugurated in 1975 under the gracious patronage of His Highness the Amir.
Covering eight square kilometers, the sanctuary provides a natural habitat for several kinds of plants and more than 500 species of animals and birds. The animals include Arabian Reem gazelles, oryx, zebras, huge tortoises, desert hedgehogs and Arabian camels, as well as various birds such as ostriches, flamingoes, eagles, storks and ducks.
Guided tours are conducted within the sanctuary where animals can be seen in their respective natural habitats. Special educational visits are also arranged for children.
Desert Camp
The Desert Camp is situated in the Sakhir area, to the south west of Jebel Dukhan at a distance of nearly 40 minutes drive from the capital, Manama.
The camp comprises several different-sized tents sufficiently accommodating more than 300 campers and is provided with all tourist facilities. The location has been selected to provide a genuine Arabian Gulf desert atmosphere.
The tents are outfitted with beautiful traditional furnishings for tourists to experience the actual lifestyle of the region.
There is also a local coffee shop, a traditional bakery, a separate tent where meals are served and artistie shows performed, a camel stable and sanitary facilities.
Tourists may enjoy camel riding, singing and dancing around the evening campfire. It is really a unique experience far from the noise of the city.
Tree Of Life
This well-matured tree has come to be known as the Tree Of Life because of the mystery surrounding its existence in the middle of the desert and without any known water source. The fact that its stands alone in this area has further raised the curiosity of visitors and specialists alike for many years. The tree, believed to be from the Acacia family, sheds its leaves in winter but grows yellow flowers, which are apparent in both Spring and Autumn. This type of tree is able to withstand harsh environments and can alive for many years.
Riffa Golf Course
The 6,875 yards, par 72 championship standard 18-hole grass course is purpose designed to be challenging and fair.
Situated in the Riffa Valley and overlooked by the historic 18th century Riffa Fort, the course follows the natural contours of the land and harnesses the waters of the Al Hunayniyah wadi to create the many water hazards which will challenge the skills of the most experienced golfers.
Water comes into play at no fewer than eight holes, including the 18th which features an island green and the 9th and 18th which have water features at both tee and greens. All 18 holes have at least 3 tees, making the course equally playable for tournament professionals and less experienced golfers. More than 60 acres have been landscaped with palms and shrubbery and a paved pathway provides safe and discreet access for golf carts.
Riffa Golf Course is maintained to the highest quality standards which are synonymous with Gleneagles Golf Developments, to ensure an international championship standard for all players.
Arabian Horses
Horses have always had a special regard from Arabs. The possession of horses has been a mark of prestige and influence by Arab emirs and sultans. From ancient times, Arabs have been eager to preserve the pure species of Arabian horses.
The Kingdom of Bahrain is one of the important countries where pure species of Arabian horses have been preserved to the highest standards recognised by Arabian horse experts. The Arabian horses of Bahrain have been registered with the World Arab Horse Organisation (WAHO).
The successive rulers of Bahrain have given special attention to maintaining, breeding and training Arabian horses for local and international horse races.
During the winter season in Bahrain, Arabian horse race sessions are regularly organised as a tourist attraction at the Sakhir area and are attended by a large number of spectators.
Shopping Delight
A visit to Bahrain will be incomplete without shopping in the souq (market) of Manama, in the heart of the capital. Traditional and most modern articles are offered in shops located in the narrow streets of the souq. In the souq, you will be attracted by the traditional Bahraini Halwa (confectionery), fresh spices & nuts, textiles and coffee shops. At a distance of only a few meters, you will be dazzled by glittering gold articles in the Gold Centre where modern and traditional designs ornamented with the famous Bahraini pearls are displayed. There are also suburban souqs, the most popular of which is the Isa Town local souq.
To keep abreast of the state-of-the-art shopping facilities, there are modern shopping and recreational centres such as Al-Seef and Al-A'ali where family amusement activities, international restaurants and fast-food outlets are existing side-by-side with world-class internationally reputed department stores stocking the latest brands.
Isa Town Local Souq
This is a principal local marketplace in Bahrain and is held in Isa Town, some 20 km from the Capital, Manama.
The souq attracts different categories of men, women and children where they can find a wide variety of commodities at reasonable prices. The goods offered for sale at this souq include locally-made pottery utensils, imported items, second-hand furniture, and a wide variety of birds.
Shopping at the Isa Town local souq is a delight in itself.
The Souq of Manama
Manama is the capital of The Kingdom of Bahrain and the centre of business activities. Shopping in the souq, where traditional and most modern articles are available, is a delight for both visitors and residents. The Bab Al-Bahrain Road which extends from the Bab Al-Bahrain archway to Shaikh Abdulla Road is an important marketplace where shops carrying the latest appliances, exchange currency, garments and gold are found on either side of the road. A point of special interest is when a visitor gets into the heart of the souq to find the shops of the Bahraini traditional Halwa (confectionery), fresh spices and nuts, texiles and coffee shops. A visit to the souq would not be complete without a tour in the 3-story Gold Centre where modern and traditional designs ornamented with the famous Bahraini pearls are displayed.
Islands and Beaches
A country consisting of 33 natural islands amply provides an open resort for beach and sea lovers. A wide choice of water recreational facilities for individuals, families and groups are available. Regular visits are arranged to the Al-Dar Islands and to Hawar Island which comprise six main islands that have been declared a natural environmental preserve. A resort exists on the main island of Hawar with all facilities including a hotel, swimming pool, water sports and other attractions.
Other beaches in Bahrain include the Le Royal Meridian Hotel beach and Al-Bander Resort, where duplex rooms and chalets are available for rent. The resort runs a widely popular seafood restaurant.
Situated at the junction of Al-Fatih Highway and Shaikh Hamad Bridge leading to Muharraq, the Museum was officially opened in December 1988 to become one of the latest and largest museums in the Middle East, The Museum consists of several exhibition halls covering the history of Bahrain from the stone age, through ancient civilisations and up to the pre-oil period.
The Hall of Graves focuses on Bahrain's famous burial mounds while the Hall of Dilmun has displays focusing on Dilmun period seals, business activities, jewellery and pottery. Other exhibition areas include the Hall of Customs and Traditions, the Hall of Trades & Crafts, the Hall of Tylos & Islam, the Hall of Natural History, and the Art Gallery. A Heritage Village has been developed outside the Museum and is used for annual national festivals.
The Bahrain National Museum offers a lot for history and heritage scholars.
Oil Museum
Located a few meters from the first oil well discovered in 1932 near Jebel Dukhan, or 'Mountain of Smoke', at Sakhir, the Oil Museum was officially inaugurated in 1992.
It houses old drilling equipment, samples of rocks found underground, topographical maps and some information about the companies that had participated in the exploration for oil.
Bahrain was the first country to discover oil in the Arabian Gulf region.
Currency Museum
This specialised Museum is located in the premises of the Bahrain Monetary Agency (BMA) in the Diplomatic Area. Displayed in the Museum are ancient Arab, Islamic and Byzantine coins minted of gold and silver. The Museum houses one of the nine rarest Islamic currency coins in the world.
All currencies circulated in Bahrain since the early Islamic dynasties are on display with full historical details. The Museum is of great benefit to currency collectors and to Islamic currency research scholars. (Open during the BMA's normal working hours).
Museum of Pearl & Diving
Located on Government Avenue, a few meters from Bab Al-Bahrain gateway, the Museum was converted into a Heritage Centre in 1984. Previously, the building was used as the Bahrain Law Courts, constructed in 1937.
The Museum consists of several exhibition halls displaying various aspects of Bahrain's daily life in the pre-oil period. Such aspects include pearl diving, national costumes, local musical instruments, a typical wedding chamber, domestic games, archive photographs, local herbal medicinal practices and High Court Chamber which has been maintained intact since 1937.
The Heritage Centre is the second best Museum worth visiting.
Bait Al-Qur'an
Located in the city of Manama, Bait Al-Qur'an, or 'House of Qur'an', was inaugurated in March 1990. It is a typical specialised Museum consisting of several floors and characterised by a most distinctive Islamic design. The Bait Al-Qur'an houses ancient manuscripts of the Holy Qur'an that have been collected from the Islamic World in general and from North Africa, Iran, India and China in particular. It also displays rare great Islamic artifacts, jewellery and gold-ornamented glass utensils, indicating the great islamic heritage arts that have had an influence throughout the world.
The building also includes a lecture hall provided with sophisticated equipment, a library of scientific and Islamic reference books, and Arabic calligraphy exhibition and translations of the Qur'an into several languages. It is definitely worth visiting as part of Bahrain's touristic landmarks.
Bait Al-Jasra
Situated at the village of Al-Jasra on the west coast of Bahrain, Bait Al-Jasra or 'Al-Jasra House' was constructed by Shaikh Hamad bin Abdulla Al-Khalifa in 1907 and was later taken as a summer residence by Shaikh Salman bin Hamad Al-Khalifa, Ruler of Bahrain from 1942 to 1961.
The House was designed according to the traditional Bahraini architecture to suit the local environment. The local building materials used include coral, gypsum and palm-tree trunks.
It consists of several rooms used for different purposes such as sitting, living, family, kitchen and date juice extraction. All the rooms are traditionally furnished. A distinctive feature in the courtyard is the Seyam, a moderately elevated palm frond terrace used for night rest.
Shaikh Isa Bin Ali House
Situated in Bahrain's second city, Muharraq, the house was constructed by Shaikh Hassan bin Abdulla bin Ahmed Al-Fatih and was used by Shaikh Isa bin Ali as his residence and centre of Government from 1869-1932.
The house consists of four main sections: the family wing, the Shaikh's wing, the guests's wing and the attendants' wing.
The house is designed in a traditional style where the rooms are directly overlooking an open courtyard, with a windtower, a feature of the traditional architecture in the Arabian Gulf region. The house represents the 19th century construction style in which local building materials were used.
Such materials included coral stones, mortar, and palm-tree tunks, The windows are decorated in ventilated gypsum geometrical designs for which Bahrain was well known.
Siyadi House
Located in the Siyadi District of Muharraq, the house was constructed almost a century ago by the well-known Bahraini pearl merchant, Ahmed bin Jassim Siyadi.
The house stands as a typical residence of Bahraini pearl merchants at the beginning of the last century. It is traditionally decorated with geometric ornaments, gypsum designs and engraved wooden windows with stained glass, all of which was the work of talented Bahraini craftsmen.
The house consists of several floors intended for different purposes. It has been renovated recently and is maintained as a piece of heritage.
Bahrain Fort
The Fort is at a distance of nearly 17 kilometers from the city of Manama and is situated at Karbabad, the village well known for its traditional basketry on the north central coastline. It is also known as Qal'at al Burtughal, or the Portuguese Fort. The Fort is of a great historical importance in the Arabian Gulf region. It is located within a historical site that had become the seat of successive civilisations, the last of which was the Islamic era.
The Fort was built by the Portuguese in 1522 on the ruins of an earlier small fort built by the people of Bahrain. The Portuguese added the high walls, the huge square towers and a surrounding moat which is still visible to visitors. The Bahrain Fort occupies a strategic military position where the navigation movement could be watched. Excavations have revealed ancient soldiers' barracks, horse stables, an ammunition depot, a secret passageway, ceramic utensils and Islamic and Chinese currency coins.
Shaikh Salman bin Ahmed Al-Fatih Fort
Built by Shaikh Salman bin Ahmed Al-Fatih in 1812, the Fort sits on a high vantage point overlooking the surrounding desert. It was used by Shaikh Salman as his seat of government.
The Fort has four towers in the corners, two of them are circular and the other two are square. The towers are connected to each other by an overhead passage and contain residential chambers and associated facilities. It is believed that the Fort was built on the ruins of an earlier 1698 castle.
The Fort was subjected to a meticulous renovation programme and has bee en restored to its original condition.
Today, Qal'at al-Riffa'a, or Riffa'a Fort, is one of Bahrain's prime tourist attractions and is open to visitors.
Arad Fort
Situated on the Island of Muharraq, the Fort was built in the 17th century and was used by the Omanis during their short occupation of Bahrain in 1800. It is a fortification structure overlooking the waterways giving access to Bahrain from this side. The Fort is in a square shape with a circular tower in each corner. It was also surrounded by a small moat that used to be filled with water from wells especially dug for this purpose. The Fort was used during the pre-Portuguese era.
As part of the recent renovation, an information office was established at the entrance of the Fort. A model of the Fort, old Portuguese maps and phases of renovation are displayed in the office. The Fort is to large extent similar to the historical forts found on the coasts of Arabia.
Al-Khamis Mosque
Situated in the Al-Khamis area on Shaikh Salman Avenue, the mosque is one of the oldest Islamic relies in the Arabian Gulf region. It is believed that it was built during the Umayyad Dynasty. However, certain inscriptions indicate a later date. Excavations have revealed that the mosque was existing through different historical periods and that it was renovated circa 1058 AD. In the 12th century, the Ayounite Prince, Abu Sinan, made an extension to the mosque and built a minaret. Later, the second minaret was added.
The mosque resembles the Islamic architecture of the time. Arches and columns are notable for their botanical design and verses from the Holy Qur'an which can still be made out. A separate museum has been established to display the history and the constructional phases of the mosque, as well as the unique designs, inscriptions and gravestones.
This mosque has played a major role in disseminating the doctrines of Islam throughout the Arabian Gulf region.
Ain Umm Al Sejoor
A natural water spring forming part of a Dilmun-age temple discovered at a site to the north of the village of Duraz, along Budaiya Road. The temple was excavated in the early 1950's and the water spring is believed to be one of the richest water wells in Bahrain.
The stone blocks scattered around the well indicated that the large building had existed, with a large are attached to the temple. Excavation has revealed stone stairs leading to the source of the well water.
Two sculpted lambs were also found near the stairs, probably indicating the sacred nature of the water well.
Saar Settlement
This archaeological site is accessible through the main road of Saar where guiding signboards are erected. This is the most recent discovery of the Dilmun era and consists of residential dwellings inhabited by the Dilminite people 4,000 years ago.
The houses are partitioned into living rooms, kitchens and courtyards, with narrow streets leading to the houses. The Saar settlement is the only archaeological site found with burial grounds adjoining residential dwellings. Other discoveries in this site include the Saar Temple and a unique type of tombs labelled 'interconnected tombs' now along the highway leading to King Fahd Causeway.
Ancient Burial Mounds
Notably scattered along large stretches of Shaikh Khalifa Highway, near the Hamad Town roundabout, these archaeological mounds are of great historical importance, going back to the Dilmun civilisation in the third millennium BC. Other archaeological mounds which to back to the Hellenistic period of Alexander the Great (2500 BC) are also found in various areas in Bahrain.
The most imposing mounds are those believed to be the Dilmunite Royal Tombs. These tombs are seen in A'ali close to modern dwellings. Several models of these tombs are displayed at Bahrain National Museum.
Saar Burial Mounds
The Saar interconnected burial mounds comprise nearly 1,500 tombs that have been unearthed, with human remains sitting in a squat position.
These tombs are contemporaneous with other similar graves built
Duraz Temple
A Dilmun-age temple located in the village of Duraz along Budaiya Road. Sufficient information available about this temple because the archeological excavation has discontinued, However, there are remains of cylindrical columns featuring the special design of the temple.
Excavations have unearthed remains of the main altar wall and of a gate leading to an inner room. It is probable that the temple was surrounded with walls having platforms similar to those of the Barbar temple.
Barbar Temple
Excavated in the 1950's by the Danish Archaeology Mission and located in the village of Barbar, the temple consists of three superimposed levels built over several periods of time. It is believed that the first level was constructed circa 2800 BC and that a larger, wider and higher temple was built on the remains of the earlier one.
The temple comprises a sacred throne, a libation stone and a worship court. To the western side, three exists a water well and the main courtyard is still visible to the visitor. The temple resembles very closely the temples found in the Mesopotamian civilisation.
Basket Weaving
This handicraft activity is found at several locations in the village of Karbabad, a few meters from the ancient site of Bahrain Fort.
It is one of the ancient traditional crafts which is still being practiced. A pitch-coated collection of baskets was discovered in 4,000-year old mounds.
The palm-tree has played a considerable role in the daily life of people who have benefited from the palm-tree products such as the dates, fronds, trunks, etc.
The skilled craftsmen who have inherited this industry from their forefathers produce various household items such as baskets, frails, fishing cages, mats and Basties (palm frond woven houses). Natural dyes are used to make the products more attractive.
Visitors can watch the weavers at work and can obtain some items for daily use or for souvenirs from the one-million-date-palm-tree Island.
Pottery Making
The craft of pottery is found in the village of A'ali, one of the oldest villages that houses 4,000-year old archaeological mounds.
The craft is an ancient one as some artifacts found in the mounds go back to the Dilmun age.
Clay is the principal material in this handicraft and is brought from certain local sites. The clay is then beaten and mixed with water until it is ready for throwing. The clay dough is then placed on a foot-operated rotating wheel and shaped as required. The products are kept in the sun to dry and then carefully placed in ancient, purpose-designed kilns, before they are displayed and offered for sale.
The pottery products include beautiful jars, bowls, incense burners, planting containers, money boxes, vases, etc.
Textile Weaving
Textile weaving is principally associated with the village of Bani-Jamrah, a few meters off Budaiya Avenue. It would appear that the traditionally installed wooden loom is quite simple. However, it is very complicated with nearly 2,600 threads extended for about 30 meters.
A weaver would sit with his legs inside a pit in the ground and would use his hands and feet while interweaving threads crosswise in a co-ordinated movement, using a small shuttle.
This shuttle is used for decorating with gold threads. In the old days some of the best sails were made in such workshops and textile woven for men's Izaar and women's Rida'a which used to be exported to the neighbouring countries.
A visitor can have access to this industry either in the village or in the Al-Jasra Handicraft Centre where products, combining ancient, inherited know-how and reasonable prices, are offered for sale.
Dhow Building
The dhow building craft can be seen in the city of Muharraq, near the old seaport.
It is one of the ancient traditional crafts on the island, embodying the significance of the sea in the life of the people of Bahrain and of the other inhabitants of the Arabian Gulf region. The first reference to this industry was found on Dilmun-age seals with various types of boats and vessels.
The skilled Bahraini shipbuilders have to form the shapes of the dhows from the traditional techniques that they have inherited from their forefathers, i.e. without any drawing or plans. The timber used to this industry is imported from India and Indonesia.
Several types of crafts are made for fishing and pearling, as well as for passenger and cargo transport. The different types of dhows manufactured in Bahrain include the Banoosh, Jalboot, Bitteel, and the Boom. Many of these dhows regularly ply the Gulf and the Arabian Sea between Bahrain, Iran and India, and have reached as far as Zanzibar on the east coast of Africa.
Al-Jasra Handicraft Centre
Situated in the village of Al-Jasra, the Centre is a significant tourist place of interest, in recognition of the fact that the ladies of this village are well-known for their skill in palm weaving.
The Centre consists of a number of rooms displaying different traditional handicrafts such as cloth weaving, pottery, Sadow (bedouin weaving), Kuwaiti chests and traditional dhow models. The upper floor exhibition stalls display models of traditional living rooms and kitchens with their attractive traditional furniture. There is also a gift shop selling local handicrafts and souvenirs produced by people who have attended special training courses designed to preserve such handicrafts.
The Al-Jasra Handicraft Centre regularly organises heritage festivals to display the traditional lifestyle of Bahrain's old towns and villages.
King Fahad Causeway
A much more modern tourist attraction, the 25-km long bridge linking Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, the King Fahad Causeway, was opened in 1986. Two artificial Islands were constructed to accommodate such services as customs, immigration, health, the Coastguard and mosques. Tower-shaped restaurants and designed so that patrons can enjoy the beautiful view of the sea separating the two countries.
Al-Areen Wildlife Park
Situated in the village of Zallaq, the sanctuary was inaugurated in 1975 under the gracious patronage of His Highness the Amir.
Covering eight square kilometers, the sanctuary provides a natural habitat for several kinds of plants and more than 500 species of animals and birds. The animals include Arabian Reem gazelles, oryx, zebras, huge tortoises, desert hedgehogs and Arabian camels, as well as various birds such as ostriches, flamingoes, eagles, storks and ducks.
Guided tours are conducted within the sanctuary where animals can be seen in their respective natural habitats. Special educational visits are also arranged for children.
Desert Camp
The Desert Camp is situated in the Sakhir area, to the south west of Jebel Dukhan at a distance of nearly 40 minutes drive from the capital, Manama.
The camp comprises several different-sized tents sufficiently accommodating more than 300 campers and is provided with all tourist facilities. The location has been selected to provide a genuine Arabian Gulf desert atmosphere.
The tents are outfitted with beautiful traditional furnishings for tourists to experience the actual lifestyle of the region.
There is also a local coffee shop, a traditional bakery, a separate tent where meals are served and artistie shows performed, a camel stable and sanitary facilities.
Tourists may enjoy camel riding, singing and dancing around the evening campfire. It is really a unique experience far from the noise of the city.
Tree Of Life
This well-matured tree has come to be known as the Tree Of Life because of the mystery surrounding its existence in the middle of the desert and without any known water source. The fact that its stands alone in this area has further raised the curiosity of visitors and specialists alike for many years. The tree, believed to be from the Acacia family, sheds its leaves in winter but grows yellow flowers, which are apparent in both Spring and Autumn. This type of tree is able to withstand harsh environments and can alive for many years.
Riffa Golf Course
The 6,875 yards, par 72 championship standard 18-hole grass course is purpose designed to be challenging and fair.
Situated in the Riffa Valley and overlooked by the historic 18th century Riffa Fort, the course follows the natural contours of the land and harnesses the waters of the Al Hunayniyah wadi to create the many water hazards which will challenge the skills of the most experienced golfers.
Water comes into play at no fewer than eight holes, including the 18th which features an island green and the 9th and 18th which have water features at both tee and greens. All 18 holes have at least 3 tees, making the course equally playable for tournament professionals and less experienced golfers. More than 60 acres have been landscaped with palms and shrubbery and a paved pathway provides safe and discreet access for golf carts.
Riffa Golf Course is maintained to the highest quality standards which are synonymous with Gleneagles Golf Developments, to ensure an international championship standard for all players.
Arabian Horses
Horses have always had a special regard from Arabs. The possession of horses has been a mark of prestige and influence by Arab emirs and sultans. From ancient times, Arabs have been eager to preserve the pure species of Arabian horses.
The Kingdom of Bahrain is one of the important countries where pure species of Arabian horses have been preserved to the highest standards recognised by Arabian horse experts. The Arabian horses of Bahrain have been registered with the World Arab Horse Organisation (WAHO).
The successive rulers of Bahrain have given special attention to maintaining, breeding and training Arabian horses for local and international horse races.
During the winter season in Bahrain, Arabian horse race sessions are regularly organised as a tourist attraction at the Sakhir area and are attended by a large number of spectators.
Shopping Delight
A visit to Bahrain will be incomplete without shopping in the souq (market) of Manama, in the heart of the capital. Traditional and most modern articles are offered in shops located in the narrow streets of the souq. In the souq, you will be attracted by the traditional Bahraini Halwa (confectionery), fresh spices & nuts, textiles and coffee shops. At a distance of only a few meters, you will be dazzled by glittering gold articles in the Gold Centre where modern and traditional designs ornamented with the famous Bahraini pearls are displayed. There are also suburban souqs, the most popular of which is the Isa Town local souq.
To keep abreast of the state-of-the-art shopping facilities, there are modern shopping and recreational centres such as Al-Seef and Al-A'ali where family amusement activities, international restaurants and fast-food outlets are existing side-by-side with world-class internationally reputed department stores stocking the latest brands.
Isa Town Local Souq
This is a principal local marketplace in Bahrain and is held in Isa Town, some 20 km from the Capital, Manama.
The souq attracts different categories of men, women and children where they can find a wide variety of commodities at reasonable prices. The goods offered for sale at this souq include locally-made pottery utensils, imported items, second-hand furniture, and a wide variety of birds.
Shopping at the Isa Town local souq is a delight in itself.
The Souq of Manama
Manama is the capital of The Kingdom of Bahrain and the centre of business activities. Shopping in the souq, where traditional and most modern articles are available, is a delight for both visitors and residents. The Bab Al-Bahrain Road which extends from the Bab Al-Bahrain archway to Shaikh Abdulla Road is an important marketplace where shops carrying the latest appliances, exchange currency, garments and gold are found on either side of the road. A point of special interest is when a visitor gets into the heart of the souq to find the shops of the Bahraini traditional Halwa (confectionery), fresh spices and nuts, texiles and coffee shops. A visit to the souq would not be complete without a tour in the 3-story Gold Centre where modern and traditional designs ornamented with the famous Bahraini pearls are displayed.
Islands and Beaches
A country consisting of 33 natural islands amply provides an open resort for beach and sea lovers. A wide choice of water recreational facilities for individuals, families and groups are available. Regular visits are arranged to the Al-Dar Islands and to Hawar Island which comprise six main islands that have been declared a natural environmental preserve. A resort exists on the main island of Hawar with all facilities including a hotel, swimming pool, water sports and other attractions.
Other beaches in Bahrain include the Le Royal Meridian Hotel beach and Al-Bander Resort, where duplex rooms and chalets are available for rent. The resort runs a widely popular seafood restaurant.
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