السلام عليكم و رحمة الله و بركاته

بدي تقرير انج 102 و بأسرع وإت....عن اني شي ...

و أنا راح اكون شاكرة لإلكن ....

ساعدوني... ..

تحياتي....
حياة الخلود

ليكون انتي.............

السلام عليكم

الحمد لله اني افتكيت

ما يبون علينا تقرير انج

بس بدور اليش

لعل وعسى ان اجد لك تقرير ( ما ادري ويش صايرة فصيحة)

مع السلامة

ممكن تذكرين بعض من مواضيع المقرر ؟؟؟

أخت ماروكو.. مين أنا عم تأصدي ..
أخت الغفران ..شكري لالك علاهتمام ..
اخ حزب الله ..مواضيع المقرر عن .. البحر ... و الانترنت .. و التكنلوجيا .. و يا ريت يكون التقرير من مرجعين ..

و شكر اً...

تحياتي..
حياة الخلود

Introduction

Internet, computer-based global information system. The Internet is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link tens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers, enabling them to share information with one another and to share computational resources such as powerful supercomputers and databases of information. The Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to communicate with one another effectively and inexpensively. Unlike traditional broadcasting media, such as radio and television, the Internet does not have a centralized distribution system. Instead, an individual who has Internet access can communicate directly with anyone else on the Internet, make information available to others, find information provided by others, or sell products with a minimum overhead cost.

The Internet has brought new opportunities to government, business, and education. Governments use the Internet for internal communication, distribution of information, and automated tax processing. In addition to offering goods and services online to customers, businesses use the Internet to interact with other businesses. Many individuals use the Internet for communicating through electronic mail (e-mail), for news and research information, shopping, paying bills, and online banking. Educational institutions use the Internet for research and to deliver courses and course material to students.

Use of the Internet has grown tremendously since its inception. The Internet’s success arises from its flexibility. Instead of restricting component networks to a particular manufacturer or particular type, Internet technology allows interconnection of any kind of computer network. No network is too large or too small, too fast or too slow to be interconnected. Thus, the Internet includes inexpensive networks that can only connect a few computers within a single room as well as expensive networks that can span a continent and connect thousands of computers.

Internet service providers (ISPs) provide Internet access to customers, usually for a monthly fee. A customer who subscribes to an ISP’s service uses the ISP’s network to access the Internet. Because ISPs offer their services to the general public, the networks they operate are known as public access networks. In the United States, as in many countries, ISPs are private companies; in countries where telephone service is a government-regulated monopoly, the government often controls ISPs.

An organization that has many computers usually owns and operates a private network, called an intranet, which connects all the computers within the organization. To provide Internet service, the organization connects its intranet to the Internet. Unlike public access networks, intranets are restricted to provide security. Only authorized computers at the organization can connect to the intranet, and the organization restricts communication between the intranet and the global Internet. The restrictions allow computers inside the organization to exchange information but keep the information confidential and protected from outsiders.

The Internet has doubled in size every 9 to 14 months since it began in the late 1970s. In 1981 only 213 computers were connected to the Internet. By 2000 the number had grown to more than 100 million. The current number of people who use the Internet can only be estimated. One survey found that there were 61 million Internet users worldwide at the end of 1996, 148 million at the end of 1998, and 407 million by the end of 2000. Some analysts said that the number of users was expected to double again by the end of 2002.






Uses of the Internet

Before the Internet was created, the U.S. military had developed and deployed communications networks, including a network known as ARPANET. Uses of the networks were restricted to military personnel and the researchers who developed the technology. Many people regard the ARPANET as the precursor of the Internet. From the 1970s until the late 1980s the Internet was a U.S. government-funded communication and research tool restricted almost exclusively to academic and military uses. It was administered by the National Science Foundation (NSF). At universities, only a handful of researchers working on Internet research had access. In the 1980s the NSF developed an “acceptable use policy” that relaxed restrictions and allowed faculty at universities to use the Internet for research and scholarly activities. However, the NSF policy prohibited all commercial uses of the Internet. Under this policy advertising did not appear on the Internet, and people could not charge for access to Internet content or sell products or services on the Internet.

By 1995, however, the NSF ceased its administration of the Internet. The Internet was privatized, and commercial use was permitted. This move coincided with the growth in popularity of the World Wide Web (WWW), which replaced file transfer as the application used for most Internet traffic. The difference between the Internet and the Web is similar to the distinction between a highway system and a package delivery service that uses the highways to move cargo from one city to another: The Internet is the highway system over which Web traffic and traffic from other applications move. The Web consists of programs running on many computers that allow a user to find and display multimedia documents (documents that contain a combination of text, photographs, graphics, audio, and video). Many analysts attribute the explosion in use and popularity of the Internet to the visual nature of Web documents. By the end of 2000, Web traffic dominated the Internet—more than 80 percent of all traffic on the Internet came from the Web.

Companies, individuals, and institutions use the Internet in many ways. Companies use the Internet for electronic commerce, also called e-commerce, including advertising, selling, buying, distributing products, and providing customer service. In addition, companies use the Internet for business-to-business transactions, such as exchanging financial information and accessing complex databases. Businesses and institutions use the Internet for voice and video conferencing and other forms of communication that enable people to telecommute (work away from the office using a computer). The use of electronic mail (e-mail) speeds communication between companies, among coworkers, and among other individuals. Media and entertainment companies use the Internet for online news and weather services and to broadcast audio and video, including live radio and television programs. Online chat allows people to carry on discussions using written text. Instant messaging enables people to exchange text messages in real time. Scientists and scholars use the Internet to communicate with colleagues, perform research, distribute lecture notes and course materials to students, and publish papers and articles. Individuals use the Internet for communication, entertainment, finding information, and buying and selling goods and services.





How the Internet Works

A Internet Access

The term Internet access refers to the communication between a residence or a business and an ISP that connects to the Internet. Access falls into two broad categories: dedicated and dial-up. With dedicated access, a subscriber’s computer remains directly connected to the Internet at all times through a permanent, physical connection. Most large businesses have high-capacity dedicated connections; small businesses or individuals that desire dedicated access choose technologies such as digital subscriber line (DSL) or cable modems, which both use existing wiring to lower cost. A DSL sends data across the same wires that telephone service uses, and cable modems use the same wiring that cable television uses. In each case, the electronic devices that are used to send data over the wires employ separate frequencies or channels that do not interfere with other signals on the wires. Thus, a DSL Internet connection can send data over a pair of wires at the same time the wires are being used for a telephone call, and cable modems can send data over a cable at the same time the cable is being used to receive television signals. The user usually pays a fixed monthly fee for a dedicated connection. In exchange, the company providing the connection agrees to relay data between the user’s computer and the Internet.

Dial-up is the least expensive access technology, but it is also the least convenient. To use dial-up access, a subscriber must have a telephone modem, a device that connects a computer to the telephone system and is capable of converting data into sounds and sounds back into data. The user’s ISP provides software that controls the modem. To access the Internet, the user opens the software application, which causes the dial-up modem to place a toll-free telephone call to the ISP. A modem at the ISP answers the call, and the two modems use audible tones to send data in both directions. When one of the modems is given data to send, the modem converts the data from the digital values used by computers—numbers stored as a sequence of 1s and 0s—into tones. The receiving side converts the tones back into digital values. Unlike dedicated access technologies, a dial-up modem does not use separate frequencies, so the telephone line cannot be used for regular telephone calls at the same time a dial-up modem is sending data.

B How Information Travels Over the Internet

All information is transmitted across the Internet in small units of data called packets. Software on the sending computer divides a large document into many packets for transmission; software on the receiving computer regroups incoming packets into the original document. Similar to a postcard, each packet has two parts: a packet header specifying the computer to which the packet should be delivered, and a packet payload containing the data being sent. The header also specifies how the data in the packet should be combined with the data in other packets by recording which piece of a document is contained in the packet.

A series of rules known as computer communication protocols specify how packet headers are formed and how packets are processed. The set of protocols used for the Internet are named TCP/IP after the two most important protocols in the set: the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol. Hardware devices that connect networks in the Internet are called IP routers because they follow the IP protocol when forwarding packets. A router examines the header in each packet that arrives to determine the packet’s destination. The router either delivers the packet to the destination computer across a local network or forwards the packet to another router that is closer to the final destination. Thus, a packet travels from router to router as it passes through the Internet.

TCP/IP protocols enable the Internet to automatically detect and correct transmission problems. For example, if any network or device malfunctions, protocols detect the failure and automatically find an alternative path for packets to avoid the malfunction. Protocol software also ensures that data arrives complete and intact. If any packets are missing or damaged, protocol software on the receiving computer requests that the source resend them. Only when the data has arrived correctly does the protocol software make it available to the receiving application program, and therefore to the user.

C Network Names and Addresses

To be connected to the Internet, a computer must be assigned a unique number, known as its IP (Internet Protocol) address. Each packet sent over the Internet contains the IP address of the computer to which it is being sent. Intermediate routers use the address to determine how to forward the packet. Users almost never need to enter or view IP addresses directly. Instead, to make it easier for users, each computer is also assigned a domain name; protocol software automatically translates domain names into IP addresses. For example, the domain name encarta.msn.com specifies a computer owned by Microsoft (names ending in .com are assigned to computers owned by commercial companies), and the corresponding IP address is 207.46.228.91. See also Domain Name System.

Users encounter domain names when they use applications such as the World Wide Web. Each page of information on the Web is assigned a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that includes the domain name of the computer on which the page is located. Other items in the URL give further details about the page. For example, the string http specifies that a browser should use the http protocol, one of many TCP/IP protocols, to fetch the item.

D Client/Server Architecture

Internet applications, such as the Web, are based on the concept of client/server architecture. In a client/server architecture, some application programs act as information providers (servers), while other application programs act as information receivers (clients). The client/server architecture is not one-to-one. That is, a single client can access many different servers, and a single server can be accessed by a number of different clients. Usually, a user runs a client application, such as a Web browser, that contacts one server at a time to obtain information. Because it only needs to access one server at a time, client software can run on almost any computer, including small handheld devices such as personal organizers and cellular telephones (these devices are sometimes called Web appliances). To supply information to others, a computer must run a server application. Although server software can run on any computer, most companies choose large, powerful computers to run server software because the company expects many clients to be in contact with its server at any given time. A faster computer enables the server program to return information with less delay.

E Electronic Mail and News Groups

Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a widely used Internet application that enables individuals or groups of individuals to quickly exchange messages, even if they are separated by long distances. A user creates an e-mail message and specifies a recipient using an e-mail address, which is a string consisting of the recipient’s login name followed by an @ (at) sign and then a domain name. E-mail software transfers the message across the Internet to the recipient’s computer, where it is placed in the specified mailbox, a file on the hard drive. The recipient uses an e-mail application to view and reply to the message, as well as to save or delete it. Because e-mail is a convenient and inexpensive form of communication, it has dramatically improved personal and business communications.

In its original form, e-mail could only be sent to recipients named by the sender, and only text messages could be sent. E-mail has been extended in two ways, and is now a much more powerful tool. Software has been invented that can automatically propagate to multiple recipients a message sent to a single address. Known as a mail gateway or list server, such software allows individuals to join or leave a mail list at any time. Such software can be used to create lists of individuals who will receive announcements about a product or service or to create online discussion groups. Of particular interest are Network News discussion groups (newsgroups) that were originally part of the Usenet network. Thousands of newsgroups exist, on an extremely wide range of subjects. Messages to a newsgroup are not sent directly to each user. Instead, an ordered list is disseminated to computers around the world that run news server software. Newsgroup application software allows a user to obtain a copy of selected articles from a local news server or to use e-mail to post a new message to the newsgroup. The system makes newsgroup discussions available worldwide.

E-mail software has also been extended to allow the transfer of nontext documents, such as photographs and other images, executable computer programs, and prerecorded audio. Such documents, appended to an e-mail message, are called attachments. The standard used for encoding attachments is known as Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME). Because the Internet e-mail system only transfers printable text, MIME software encodes each document using printable letters and digits before sending it and then decodes the item when e-mail arrives. Most significantly, MIME allows a single message to contain multiple items, enabling a sender to include a cover letter that explains each of the attachments.

F Other Internet Applications
Although the World Wide Web is the most popular application, other Internet applications are widely used. For example, the Telnet application enables a user to interactively access a remote computer. Telnet gives the appearance that the user’s keyboard and monitor are connected directly to the remote computer. For example, a businessperson who is visiting a location that has Internet access can use Telnet to contact their office computer. Doing so is faster and less expensive than using dial-up modems.

The Internet can also be used to transfer telephone calls using an application known as IP-telephony. This application requires a special phone that digitizes voice and sends it over the Internet to a second IP telephone. Another application, known as the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), is used to download files from an Internet site to a user’s computer. The FTP application is often automatically invoked when a user downloads an updated version of a piece of software. Applications such as FTP have been integrated with the World Wide Web, making them transparent so that they run automatically without requiring users to open them. When a Web browser encounters a URL that begins with ftp:// it automatically uses FTP to access the item.



Although the World Wide Web is the most popular application, other Internet applications are widely used. For example, the Telnet application enables a user to interactively access a remote computer. Telnet gives the appearance that the user’s keyboard and monitor are connected directly to the remote computer. For example, a businessperson who is visiting a location that has Internet access can use Telnet to contact their office computer. Doing so is faster and less expensive than using dial-up modems.

The Internet can also be used to transfer telephone calls using an application known as IP-telephony. This application requires a special phone that digitizes voice and sends it over the Internet to a second IP telephone. Another application, known as the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), is used to download files from an Internet site to a user’s computer. The FTP application is often automatically invoked when a user downloads an updated version of a piece of software. Applications such as FTP have been integrated with the World Wide Web, making them transparent so that they run automatically without requiring users to open them. When a Web browser encounters a URL that begins with ftp:// it automatically uses FTP to access the item.





History

Research on dividing information into packets and switching them from computer to computer began in the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded a research project that created a packet switching network known as the ARPANET. ARPA also funded research projects that produced two satellite networks. In the 1970s ARPA was faced with a dilemma: Each of its networks had advantages for some situations, but each network was incompatible with the others. ARPA focused research on ways that networks could be interconnected, and the Internet was envisioned and created to be an interconnection of networks that use TCP/IP protocols. In the early 1980s a group of academic computer scientists formed the Computer Science NETwork, which used TCP/IP protocols. Other government agencies extended the role of TCP/IP by applying it to their networks: The Department of Energy’s Magnetic Fusion Energy Network (MFENet), the High Energy Physics NETwork (HEPNET), and the National Science Foundation NETwork (NSFNET).

In the 1980s, as large commercial companies began to use TCP/IP to build private internets, ARPA investigated transmission of multimedia—audio, video, and graphics—across the Internet. Other groups investigated hypertext and created tools such as Gopher that allowed users to browse menus, which are lists of possible options. In 1989 many of these technologies were combined to create the World Wide Web. Initially designed to aid communication among physicists who worked in widely separated locations, the Web became immensely popular and eventually replaced other tools. Also during the late 1980s, the U.S. government began to lift restrictions on who could use the Internet, and commercialization of the Internet began. In the early 1990s, with users no longer restricted to the scientific or military communities, the Internet quickly expanded to include universities, companies of all sizes, libraries, public and private schools, local and state governments, individuals, and families.




The Future of the Internet
Several technical challenges must be overcome if the Internet is to continue growing at the current phenomenal rate. The primary challenge is to create enough capacity to accommodate increases in traffic. Internet traffic is increasing as more people become Internet users and existing users send greater amounts of data. If the volume of traffic increases faster than the capacity of the network increases, congestion will occur, similar to the congestion that occurs when too many cars attempt to use a highway. To avoid congestion, researchers have developed technologies, such as Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM), that transfer more bits per second across an optical fiber. The speed of routers and other packet-handling equipment must also increase to accommodate growth. In the short term, researchers are developing faster electronic processors; in the long term, new technologies will be required.

Another challenge involves IP addresses. Although the original protocol design provided addresses for up to 4.29 billion individual computers, the addresses have begun to run out because they were assigned in blocks. Researchers developed technologies, such as Network Address Translation (NAT), to conserve addresses. NAT allows multiple computers at a residence to “share” a single Internet address. Engineers have also planned a next-generation of IP, called IPv6, which will handle many more addresses than the current version.

Short, easy-to-remember domain names were once in short supply. Many domain names that used the simple format http://www.[word].com, where [word] is a common noun or verb, and .com referred to a for-profit business were mostly taken by 2001. Until 2001, only a few endings were allowed, such as .com, .org, and .net. By 2002, however, additional endings began to be used, such as .biz for businesses and .info for informational sites. This greatly expanded the number of possible URLs.

Other important questions concerning Internet growth relate to government controls, especially taxation and censorship. Because the Internet has grown so rapidly, governments have had little time to pass laws that control its deployment and use, impose taxes on Internet commerce, or otherwise regulate content. Many Internet users in the United States view censorship laws as an infringement on their constitutional right to free speech. In 1996 the Congress of the United States passed the Communications Decency Act, which made it a crime to transmit indecent material over the Internet. The act resulted in an immediate outcry from users, industry experts, and civil liberties groups opposed to such censorship. In 1997 the Supreme Court of the United States declared the act unconstitutional because it violated First Amendment rights to free speech. The U.S. Congress responded in 1998 by passing a narrower antipornography bill, the Child Online Protection Act (COPA). COPA required commercial Web sites to ensure that children could not access material deemed harmful to minors. In 1999 a federal judge blocked COPA as well, ruling that it would dangerously restrict constitutionally protected free speech. The judge’s ruling was upheld by a federal appeals court on the grounds that the law’s use of “community standards” in deciding what was pornographic was overly broad.

The issue reached the Supreme Court of the United States in 2002, and in a limited ruling the Supreme Court found that the community standard provision was not inherently unconstitutional. Supporters of the law welcomed the Court’s ruling. However, opponents noted that the Court had sent the case back to the federal appeals court for a more comprehensive review and had ruled that the law could not go into effect until that review occurred. Some analysts who studied the various opinions written by the justices concluded that a majority of the Court was likely to find the law unconstitutional.

Increasing commercial use of the Internet has heightened security and privacy concerns. With a credit or debit card, an Internet user can order almost anything from an Internet site and have it delivered to their home or office. Companies doing business over the Internet need sophisticated security measures to protect credit card, bank account, and social security numbers from unauthorized access as they pass across the Internet (see Computer Security). Any organization that connects its intranet to the global Internet must carefully control the access point to ensure that outsiders cannot disrupt the organization’s internal networks or gain unauthorized access to the organization’s computer systems and data.

Disruptions that could cause loss of life or that could be part of a coordinated terrorist attack have also become an increasing concern. For example, using the Internet to attack computer systems that control electric power grids, pipelines, water systems, or chemical refineries could cause the systems to fail, and the resulting failures could lead to fatalities and harm to the economy. To safeguard against such attacks, the U.S. Congress passed the Homeland Security Act in November 2002. The new law creates criminal penalties, including life imprisonment, for disruptions of computer systems and networks that cause or attempt to cause death. The law also allows ISPs to reveal subscriber information to government officials without a court-approved warrant if there is a risk of death or injury. It also enables government officials to trace e-mails and other Internet traffic during an Internet disruption without obtaining court approval. Civil liberties groups objected to the lack of court supervision of many provisions in the new law.









المصدر : ENCARTA Encyclopedia

تشكر أخي حزب الله على التقرير ..

ما راح أنسى لك هذا المعروف ..

تحياتي..
حياة الخلود

بغيت منكم طلب انا بعد انكم تدعموني بصور حق موضوع الهيستوري (صورة او صورتين)

وشرح في حدود سطرين او ثلاثة اسطر عن مضمون التقرير عشان لا يجكني بالنجلينزي عاد

والسلام

مشكور اخوي
بس الموضوع كثيييييييير طويل
والمعلمه تبغى صفحتين
كيف الخصه اني
ياليتكم تساعدوني

اخوي حزب الله
لو تتكرم وترحمني
وتسوي لي جزء بسيط من الموضوع
بالبور بوينت
لانهم مايبغون تقاااااااارير
بهالطريقه

السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته

اللهم صلي على محمد وآل محمد
اللهم صلي على محمد وآل محمد
اللهم صلي على محمد وآل محمد

عظم الله اجورنا وأجوركم
لعن الله من عاداك يا إمامي يا حسين من الآن الي قيام يوم الدين




ممكن تقرير عن البحرين
لو سمحتون بغيته ضروري





تحياتي
نور العاشقين

Introduction


Bahrain or Bahrein, officially Kingdom of Bahrain, independent Arab nation in western Asia, part of the region known as the Middle East. Bahrain is made up of 36 islands on the western side of the Persian Gulf, between Saudi Arabia to the east and Qatar to the west. The main island, also known as Bahrain, is home to the country’s capital and largest city, Manama.

Bahrain entered recorded history about 5,000 years ago as a commercial trading center. Long under the influence of more powerful neighbors, it came under the domination of Iran in the 17th century. The al-Khalifa family, originating from the central Arabian Peninsula, established themselves as Bahrain’s rulers in 1783 and has ruled ever since. A series of treaties in the 19th century gave Britain control over Bahrain’s defense and foreign affairs. The British influence lasted until Bahrain became independent in 1971.

More than 60 percent of Bahrain’s population is native-born, in contrast to the populations of other Persian Gulf states such as Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, where foreign-born inhabitants outnumber the native population. Bahrain also differs from its neighbors in that the number of followers of Shia Islam in the country is more than double that of the adherents of Sunni Islam, which is the largest group of Muslims worldwide. The Sunnis control the country’s government, however.

In the 1930s Bahrain became the first Arab state in the Persian Gulf region to develop an oil-based economy, but by the early 1980s its oil fields were mostly depleted. However, the country had prepared for this change by investing in other industries, and its economy continues to prosper.





Land and Resources

In terms of land area, Bahrain is a very small country. Its total area is 707 sq km (273 sq mi), a little less than that of New York City. Its main island is by far the largest, with an area of 562 sq km (217 sq mi). It is connected to Saudi Arabia by the King Fahd Causeway.

Bahrain is primarily a flat and arid desert land. The main island consists of a low desert plain that rises to a low central ridge where Bahrain’s highest point, Jabal ad Dukhan (134 m/440 ft), is located. The smaller islands, which include Al Muḩarraq, Umm an Na‘sān, Sitrah, Jiddah, and the Ḩawār Islands, are generally low-lying, some only a few feet above sea level. Parts of Manama are being expanded through land reclamation. Bahrain lacks rivers, lakes, and other permanent bodies of water. The country gets its water for drinking and irrigation from underground aquifers.

A Climate

Bahrain experiences extremely hot and humid weather from April to October, with temperatures regularly rising to 43°C (110°F) and sometimes reaching 52°C (125°F). Winters are milder, with temperatures ranging between 10° and 20°C (50° and 70°F). Annual rainfall averages about 100 mm (about 4 in) and falls almost entirely during the winter months. Seasonal winds periodically cause sandstorms and rough seas. The shimal, a northerly wind, blows in June and July, and the gaws comes from the south before or after the shimal.

B Plants and Animals

Despite harsh desert conditions, Bahrain supports varied plant and animal life. Many plants are halophytes (plants that are salt tolerant) and xerophytes (plants that are drought resistant), including flowering desert shrubs. There are many palm trees, although increased groundwater salinity has reduced their numbers. (As more and more freshwater is withdrawn from underground aquifers, saltwater from the Persian Gulf seeps into the aquifers, making the groundwater more salty.) An abundance of marine life, including grouper, mackerel, shrimp, pearl oysters, and dugong (sea cows), thrives in Bahrain’s surrounding waters. Land animals include scorpions, snakes and other reptiles, hares, hedgehogs, and gazelles. The government funds a conservation program to breed the endangered white, or Arabian, oryx (a type of antelope) at Al Areen Wildlife Park.

C Natural Resources

Petroleum and natural gas constitute Bahrain’s principal natural resources. However, the country’s reserves of petroleum and natural gas are far smaller than those of its neighbors. Only about 3 percent of the land is suitable for farming. Bahrain’s surrounding waters contain considerable numbers of fish and shellfish.

D Environmental Issues

Like most industrialized nations, Bahrain copes with a variety of environmental problems. Oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations have damaged coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation. No natural freshwater resources exist in the country, so groundwater and seawater are the only sources for all water needs. In some areas, industrial pollutants have contaminated water sources with heavy metals. Agricultural development has been neglected, and the limited arable land has been degraded. Erosion of farmland has brought desertification. Bahrain’s Environmental Protection Secretariat has worked to reverse environmental damage, especially in marine areas. Water Pollution; Air Pollution.

III People
Print Preview of Section

Bahrain’s population was estimated at 677,886 in 2004. Bahrain has a population density of 1,095 persons per sq km (2,836 per sq mi). About 93 percent of the population resides in urban areas, primarily in Manama, its suburbs, and the nearby city of Al Muḩarraq on the island of the same name. Manama serves as the country’s governmental and commercial center, while Al Muḩarraq is the site of Bahrain International Airport. Many of the smaller islands are uninhabited.

The country has a high population growth rate, 1.56 percent (2004 estimate). This high growth rate results primarily from a continued relatively high birth rate. Males account for 56 percent of the population. The higher number of males than females is found mostly within the 15- to 64-year-old age group. This difference and its concentration in that one age group reflect the fact that about 60 percent of Bahrain’s workforce is foreign and male.

Native Bahraini Arabs account for about two-thirds of the population. The various minorities include Asians (accounting for 13 percent of the total population), other Arabs (10 percent), and Iranians (8 percent). Other groups, including western Europeans and Americans, make up the remaining 6 percent. Some tensions exist between native Bahrainis and nonnative groups, especially in times of high unemployment. The official language is Arabic. English, Farsi, and Urdu are also widely spoken.

A Religion
Almost all Bahrainis and the majority of nonnatives are followers of Islam (Muslims). About 70 percent of all native Bahrainis belong to the Shia branch of Islam, while the remainder, including the ruling al-Khalifa clan, are adherents of the Sunni branch. Non-Muslims, including Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, and Jews, account for 15 percent of the total population. High unemployment among the Shia population has caused considerable discontent on the part of this group toward the Sunni-dominated government.

B Education

Bahrain established the first public education system in the Persian Gulf region in 1919. Education is free and, between the ages of 6 and 15, compulsory. The literacy rate was estimated at 89.7 percent in 2004, representing a steady increase over the previous several decades. The rate is somewhat higher among males (92.3 percent) than among females (85.8 percent). The University of Bahrain was established in 1986 in Manama. Another institution of higher education, also in Manama, is the College of Health Sciences, founded in 1976, which trains physicians, nurses, and other health professionals.






C Culture

Traditional Bahraini culture reflects its Islamic, mercantile, and Arab Bedouin roots. Graceful dhows, Arab boats used for fishing and diving for pearls, exhibit a high degree of craftsmanship, as do traditional jewelry and the elegant residences of rulers and merchants. Traditional performing arts include ceremonial dances accompanied by drums, readings of the Qur’an (Koran, or Islamic scripture), and storytelling. Bahraini poets carry on established traditions while also exploring new themes. Soccer, horse racing, and cricket are among the most popular sports. Celebrations of birth and marriage continue to be important ceremonial occasions. The Bahrain National Museum, which opened in 1988 in Manama, features exhibits of crafts, historical documents, and archaeological artifacts. Arabic Literature; Islamic Art and Architecture.

In many ways Bahraini society is relatively open and liberal, reflecting its long history as a trading nation. Merchants, including the ruling clan, have long been the dominant class, establishing a business-oriented culture that values accumulation of wealth. Among university graduates women outnumber men, and women play an increasingly important role in business and professional life.

At the same time, Bahraini society continues to be shaped by conservative Islamic values, especially the Shia population in the rural areas. The family is the principal social unit, and most women remain in the home. In urban areas many women do not wear the traditional Islamic veil and some Bahrainis wear Western clothing. Traditional dress predominates in rural areas. For men, traditional dress includes a loose cotton garment called a thob, which can be covered with a woolen robe called a bisht in cool weather. Women traditionally wear a concealing cloak called an abaya.

In Manama many restaurants serve Western-style food, but at home most Bahrainis eat traditional fare, including lamb, fish (especially hamour, a kind of grouper), rice, and dates. Coffee, a favorite beverage, plays an important social and ceremonial role. The modern forms of entertainment found in Manama, such as motion pictures, cater primarily to foreigners.





Economy

Since the discovery of petroleum on the main island in 1932, oil production and refining have dominated Bahrain’s economy. Natural gas occurs along with the crude oil and comes out of the same wells. For a long time, the gas from the wells was allowed to escape into the air. In 1979 the government set up a company to collect and process the natural gas into propane, butane, and naphtha. Depletion of Bahrain’s limited oil reserves has prompted efforts to develop other industries. For example, in the 1970s the government established Aluminum Bahrain (ALBA); aluminum smelting remains an important industry. In a further effort at diversification, the government has promoted tourism.

The government controls the oil and gas industry, most heavy manufacturing, and the bulk of the transportation and communications sectors, but it has undertaken efforts to privatize the economy. Banking, light manufacturing, and commerce are in private hands, with many multinational corporations maintaining offices in the country.

Bahrain’s gross domestic product (GDP) was $7.7 billion in 2002, or $11,010 per capita. Services, including public administration, banking, and tourism, accounted for 59 percent of the GDP. Industry accounted for 40 percent, with manufacturing responsible for 19 percent and oil and gas extraction for most of the remainder. Agriculture contributed 1 percent of the GDP.

A Labor

Of Bahrain’s labor force of 319,963 people in 2002, 54 percent worked in industry, 43 percent in services, and 1 percent in agriculture. Almost 60 percent of the labor force was foreign-born, because native Bahrainis generally lacked the skills required for employment in many fields and many foreign workers were willing to work for low wages. Unemployment remains a serious problem. Since the mid-1990s unemployment has contributed to widespread, sometimes violent, political discontent among Shias, who are traditionally less advantaged and more prone to unemployment than the Sunnis.

B Agriculture

Like its Gulf Arab neighbors, Bahrain has aimed for agricultural self-sufficiency, and it now produces about 75 percent of the fruits and vegetables that its population consumes. The main crops are dates, tomatoes, onions, and melons. The country also produces a large part of its milk, poultry, and egg requirements.

C Manufacturing

Beginning in the mid-1960s the government encouraged the growth of small-scale manufacturing. To this end, it offered tax incentives and low-interest loans to entrepreneurs. Factories in Bahrain produce plastics, ceramic tiles, paper products, and carbonated beverages.

D Banking and Currency

After 1975, when the Lebanese Civil War began, Bahrain took over much of Lebanon’s financial services industry, especially in the form of offshore banking units (OBUs). These OBUs are units of large multinational banking companies that operate in small (usually island) countries and dependencies where regulation is not as strict as in their home countries and taxes are not as high. Today Bahrain is home to OBUs from all over the world. Although declining oil revenues and instability caused by civil unrest have hurt the banking sector, Bahrain remains a significant financial center. In 1989 the government established a small stock exchange, which it linked to Kuwait's stock exchange in 1997.

Bahrain’s currency is the Bahraini dinar (0.38 dinars equal U.S.$1; 2002), issued by the Bahrain Monetary Agency. In rural areas many transactions are made by bartering and trade rather than with money.

E Foreign Trade

Bahrain has been a trading center since ancient times. For thousands of years Bahrainis produced dhows (boats), pearls, and various fruits and vegetables for trade. Today, oil is the focus of international commerce in the country. More than one-third of Bahrain’s imports consists of crude oil from Saudi Arabia, which is processed in Bahrain’s petroleum refineries. Other imports include machinery and transportation equipment, food, and chemicals. Exports include petroleum and petroleum products, aluminum, and manufactured goods. Bahrain’s major trading partners are Saudi Arabia, India, Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom.

Bahrain belongs to a wide range of international and regional economic organizations. Because of its reduced oil production, Bahrain is not a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), but it is a member of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), which seeks to coordinate Arab oil policy. Bahrain is a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and has participated in various council initiatives aimed at promoting economic cooperation among its members. Following independence in 1971, Bahrain became a member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).



Government

The al-Khalifa family has ruled Bahrain since 1783. Bahrain gained full independence from Britain in 1971, adopted a constitution in 1973, and substantially revised the constitution in 2002. Under the 2002 revision, Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy ruled by a king (prior to 2002, the al-Khalifa ruler was called an emir). The constitution states that the succession of the office of king automatically passes from ruler to son, making Bahrain unique among the monarchies of the Persian Gulf in this regard.

A Executive and Legislature

The king appoints a prime minister and a cabinet called the Council of Ministers. Members of the al-Khalifa family hold almost all of the top political posts. The constitution also provides for a bicameral legislature known as the National Assembly. The two houses of the National Assembly are the Consultative Council, whose 40 members are appointed by the king, and the Chamber of Deputies, whose 40 members are elected by direct popular vote. All citizens 18 years of age or older can vote. Both appointed and elected legislators serve four-year terms. All legislation approved by the National Assembly must be ratified by the king in order to become law.



B Political Parties and Local Government


Political parties are technically forbidden, although informal political groups emerged in 1973 when the National Assembly was elected. In 2001 legislation was approved permitting the formation of political societies, similar to democratic political parties.

Bahrain is divided into numerous municipalities, administered from Manama by a central council whose members are appointed by the king. Thus, the central government largely controls local governmental affairs.




C Judicial System

Bahrain’s legal system draws upon Islamic religious law (the Sharia), tribal law, English common law, and other sources. All residents are subject to the jurisdiction of Bahraini courts, which guarantee equality to all before the law. The court system consists of civil and Sharia courts, both of which have courts of appeal. The country’s highest court is the Supreme Court of Appeal. The 2002 constitution established a Higher Judicial Council to supervise the functioning of the court system. The king chairs the council and appoints judges proposed by the council.

D Defense and International Affairs

The Bahraini Defense Force (BDF) numbered 11,200 in 2002. The BDF includes some Jordanian officers, as well as Pakistani and Sudanese enlisted men. Foreign personnel, chiefly Americans and Britons, contract with the BDF to supply support services. The BDF consists of an 8,500-member army, a 1,500-member air force, and a 1,200-member navy. The navy receives assistance (in the form of the loan of a frigate and training for personnel) from the U.S. Navy, whose Fifth Fleet uses Bahrain’s harbor facilities. There is a separate 1,000-member Coast Guard. Military service is voluntary. However, native Shias are generally not accepted into the armed forces because the Sunni ruling establishment does not trust them, believing that dissidents might find their way into sensitive positions.

Upon its independence in 1971, Bahrain became a member of the United Nations and the Arab League, which promotes common Arab interests. It also belongs to the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Because of its small size, Bahrain does not play a leading role in regional or international organizations. However, it participates actively in the Gulf Cooperation Council's defense security measures.



History

Archaeological evidence indicates that Bahrain was inhabited at least 50,000 years ago. The inhabitants may have first practiced agriculture about 8,000 years ago. By about 4000 bc Bahrain was the center of the advanced Dilmun trading culture, which had connections with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley (see Indus Valley Civilization). Dilmun seems to have been a federation of sorts that centered on the Persian Gulf shore. It included parts of the Arabian mainland and traded with inland sections of what is now Saudi Arabia. Thus, early in its history, Bahrain established its character as a cosmopolitan commercial state, based on its location on major trade routes that passed through the Persian Gulf region. Dilmun achieved its greatest wealth and power in about 2000 bc.

In about 600 bc the Babylonian Empire (see Babylonia) absorbed Bahrain, which until modern times included part of the adjacent eastern Arabian mainland (now part of Saudi Arabia). Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great had been about to add Bahrain (known to the Greeks as Tylos) and the Arabian Peninsula to his empire when he died suddenly in 323 bc. Eastern Arabia subsequently came under the influence of the Seleucids, Alexander’s successors in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia. In the 3rd century ad it came under the control of the Sassanids, a Persian dynasty. In the early 7th century the Byzantine Empire defeated the Sassanids and drove the Persians from their eastern Arabian outposts.

By 650 the entire Arabian Peninsula had come under the rule of the followers of the prophet Muhammad, founder of Islam. Bahrain became part of the empire of two successive Islamic dynasties, the Umayyads (661-750) and the Abbasids (750-1258), then entered a long turbulent period when it often acted as a buffer between larger competing powers. In 1521 the Portuguese, who were in the midst of exploration and conquest in many areas of Africa and Asia, occupied Bahrain. In 1602 a group of Bahrainis seized the Portuguese fort and appealed to Iran (known as Persia by the Western world until the 1930s) for assistance. Their appeal led to Iranian domination, usually exercised through Arab vassals, for almost two centuries.

In the mid-18th century the al-Khalifa, a prominent family among the ‘Utub tribe from the central Arabian Peninsula, established control over parts of Qatar. They seized Bahrain in 1783, ending Iranian influence in eastern Arabia. By the end of the 18th century the al-Khalifa had moved their capital to Bahrain.

Meanwhile, Britain and The Netherlands increased their commercial influence in the region. By the late 18th century the British had bested the Dutch for supremacy in the Persian Gulf. Beginning in 1820 Britain imposed a series of treaties on Bahrain and its neighbors; treaties imposed in the 1860s brought Bahrain under still closer British sway.

British influence brought increased order to the maritime affairs of Bahrain and the other Persian Gulf states and led to the expansion of the pearling trade, which had been a major economic activity in the region as early as the 9th century ad. In the early 20th century pearling was Bahrain’s principal source of income. Its pearling fleet included about 900 ships, and close to half the male population was engaged in harvesting and selling pearls. An economic depression in Europe in the 1920s severely hurt the pearl business, and the introduction of cultured pearls in the early 1930s effectively ended it.

Petroleum was discovered in Bahrain in the early 1930s, the first such discovery on the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf. The discovery assured the country’s continued prosperity. Oil provided the ruling family with an independent source of income, strengthening its position against potential challenges from the wealthy merchant class. In addition, it made possible the creation of modern infrastructure (roads, water supply, and so forth) and social services. Consequently, Bahrain developed a modern state administration before the other states under British protection: Kuwait, Qatar, and the seven Trucial States (later the United Arab Emirates). Bahrain thus acquired greater commercial and strategic importance. As a result, Britain exercised its influence there more strongly than in the other protected states, and Britain’s naval forces in the Persian Gulf established their home port at Al Jufayr.

In 1968 the British government, acting to cut expenditures, announced that British forces would withdraw from positions east of Suez, Egypt, by the end of 1971. Initially, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial States considered forming a union, but that idea fell through in part because the other states feared that Bahrain’s greater population and more advanced development would enable it to dominate such a union. Meanwhile, Bahrain faced an Iranian claim to its territory, first advanced in 1928. However, Iran accepted the results of a 1970 United Nations survey that confirmed the population’s preference for independence.

Bahrain became an independent state on August 15, 1971. Emir Isa bin Sulman al-Khalifa, who had assumed power in 1961, remained as emir. The Council of State, created in 1970 to advise the emir, became his cabinet. The emir announced the creation of a constituent assembly to draft and ratify a constitution. Just over half of its members were elected in late 1972 by Bahraini male voters, with the balance appointed by the emir. The constituent assembly approved a constitution, which the emir put into force in December 1973.

The constitution called for a legislature, the National Assembly, with very limited political powers. In an election held that month, male voters elected the assembly. However, the cabinet and the assembly disagreed on many matters, including trade union and internal security issues, the U.S. Navy’s lease of Bahrain’s facilities (dating to 1949), and especially how much power the assembly would have. The emir dissolved the assembly by decree in August 1975.

Events in the late 20th century demonstrated how much Bahrain’s stability depended on the stability of the Persian Gulf region. The Islamic Revolution of Iran, which brought a Shia government to power on the other shore of the gulf in 1979, heightened tensions between Sunnis and Shias in Bahrain. In 1981 and 1985 the Bahraini authorities reportedly foiled Iranian-inspired Shia plots to overthrow the government. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) brought further instability to the region. Concern over possible escalation of the war prompted fears about the weakness of Bahrain’s military. Bahrain joined other Arab nations in the region to found the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981, thereby receiving assistance with intelligence monitoring and gaining approval from the other member states to purchase weapons from the United States.

In 1987 Bahrain provided vital facilities for U.S. naval forces escorting Kuwaiti vessels through the Persian Gulf to shield them from possible attack by Iran, which accused them of carrying Iraqi oil. It also played a key role in supporting naval vessels of the United States and other countries operating against Iraq during the Persian Gulf War (1991). In 1991 and 1994 Bahrain solidified its security arrangements with the United States, confirming its role as an American support base in the region.

Political unrest among Bahrain’s Shias continued over the course of the decade, and the Sunni government’s often harsh responses drew international criticism. In 1994 Shias calling for the restoration of the National Assembly, which had been dissolved in 1975, held protests that led to skirmishes with police. After several months of protests, the emir began negotiations with the Shia leaders, but the talks dissolved by mid-1995. In 1996 many Shias were arrested. By 1999 about 40 people had died as a result of incidents related to Shia unrest.

In 1999 Emir Isa bin Sulman al-Khalifa died and was immediately succeeded by his son Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa. The new emir chose a path of reform. He commissioned the drafting of a new national charter and pardoned hundreds of political prisoners. In February 2001 a public referendum on the charter passed overwhelmingly, transforming Bahrain into a constitutional monarchy governed by a king and a new, bicameral legislative body. The country’s amended constitution subsequently went into effect in early 2002 and elections for the Chamber of Deputies, the elected house of the legislature, were held later that year.